The Garos, who call themselves A’chik, are one of the major indigenous communities of Meghalaya. Their traditional society developed mainly in the Garo Hills and was organised around the clan, village, landholding system and customary institutions rather than a centralised monarchy.

Unlike the Khasi Syiemships or the Jaintia Kingdom, traditional Garo political organisation was highly decentralised. Authority was exercised at the local level, particularly through the Nokma, who occupied an important position in matters of land, village organisation and customary affairs.

A’chik: The Garo People

The term A’chik is the indigenous name widely used by the Garo people for themselves. The word Garo became common in administrative and outside usage.

Traditional Garo settlements were concentrated mainly in:

• the Garo Hills of present-day Meghalaya;
• adjoining parts of Assam;
• areas along the present India-Bangladesh border.

Garo society developed distinctive institutions based on matrilineal descent, clan organisation and customary control over land.

Basic Features of Traditional Garo Society

Traditional Garo society was characterised by:

• matrilineal descent;
• clan-based social organisation;
• inheritance through the female line;
• village-centred political life;
• community ownership and customary control of land;
• an important role of the Nokma;
• customary law and collective decision-making.

There was no single political authority ruling over all Garo communities.

Matrilineal Social System

The Garos follow a matrilineal system, in which descent and clan identity pass through the mother.

A child belongs to the mother’s clan, and family property traditionally passes through the female line.

The main features of the system include:

• descent through the mother;
• clan identity through the maternal line;
• inheritance through women;
• strong role of the maternal family;
• prohibition of marriage within the same clan.

Matriliny, however, did not mean that women alone exercised political authority. Many public and customary functions were traditionally performed by men acting on behalf of the matrilineal household or clan.

Clan Organisation

The clan was the foundation of traditional Garo society.

The major clan groupings are commonly known as ma’chong. Membership in a ma’chong is inherited through the mother.

The clan regulated:

• marriage;
• inheritance;
• property;
• social obligations;
• kinship relations;
• customary responsibilities.

Marriage within the same ma’chong was traditionally prohibited because members of the same clan were regarded as kin.

The Nokna and Inheritance

In traditional Garo society, family property usually passed through a designated female heir known as the Nokna.

The Nokna was generally selected from among the daughters of the household and became the principal inheritor of family property.

Her position was important because:

• property remained within the maternal clan;
• she ensured continuity of the household;
• she inherited family rights and responsibilities;
• succession to important landholding rights was linked to her lineage.

The husband associated with the heiress traditionally performed many practical and public responsibilities connected with the household.

Village as the Basic Political Unit

Traditional Garo political organisation was centred on the village rather than on a large state or kingdom.

Each village functioned with considerable autonomy in everyday matters.

Village affairs included:

• use of land;
• agricultural activities;
• settlement of local disputes;
• protection of community resources;
• customary ceremonies;
• relations with neighbouring settlements.

Political organisation was therefore strongly local and community-based.

The Nokma

The Nokma was one of the most important figures in traditional Garo society.

The office of Nokma was closely connected with the A’king, or customary landholding territory belonging to a particular clan.

The Nokma was not an absolute ruler or king. He functioned primarily as the recognised custodian and representative of the landholding clan and played an important role in village affairs.

Functions of the Nokma

The Nokma traditionally performed several responsibilities:

• supervision of A’king land;
• allocation of land for cultivation;
• regulation of community resource use;
• settlement of certain disputes;
• representation of the village or clan;
• coordination of customary activities;
• participation in religious and social ceremonies.

His position depended heavily on customary law and clan recognition.

Was the Nokma the Owner of the Land?

The Nokma should not be understood as the private owner of the entire A’king.

The land was traditionally associated with the matrilineal clan, while the Nokma acted as its custodian and administrator.

This distinction is important:

A’king land belonged traditionally to the clan, while the Nokma managed and represented customary rights over it.

A’king Land System

The A’king was a defined customary territory associated with a matrilineal clan.

It formed the economic and territorial foundation of traditional Garo society.

An A’king could include:

• agricultural land;
• forest areas;
• grazing areas;
• streams and water sources;
• uncultivated land;
• areas used for community purposes.

Customary rights over these resources were exercised according to established clan traditions.

Importance of A’king

The A’king system linked land, clan identity and political authority.

Its importance can be understood through three relationships:

• Clan provided the social identity.
• A’king provided the territorial base.
• Nokma represented and managed customary rights over that territory.

Thus, traditional Garo political organisation cannot be separated from the land system.

Selection and Position of the Nokma

The office of Nokma was connected with the matrilineal system.

The right to the office was associated with a particular Nokma family or clan lineage, while practical responsibilities were commonly exercised by a male representative linked to the heiress.

The office therefore combined:

• matrilineal inheritance;
• clan rights;
• customary recognition;
• male performance of many public responsibilities.

The precise arrangements could differ among Garo communities.

Authority of the Nokma

The Nokma’s authority was limited by custom.

He could not normally act as an unrestricted chief because:

• A’king rights belonged to the clan;
• customary law regulated land use;
• village opinion was important;
• elders participated in community affairs;
• established traditions limited individual authority.

Traditional Garo governance was therefore based more on customary leadership and consensus than on centralised political power.

Council of Elders and Community Decision-Making

The Nokma did not govern the community completely alone. Important matters were traditionally discussed with respected elders and members of the village.

Community discussion could involve:

• disputes over cultivation;
• allocation of land;
• conflicts between families;
• social offences;
• customary ceremonies;
• relations with neighbouring villages.

This gave Garo village administration a strong consultative character.

Customary Law

Traditional Garo society was governed by a body of customary rules transmitted across generations.

Customary law regulated matters such as:

• marriage;
• divorce;
• inheritance;
• land rights;
• clan obligations;
• compensation;
• dispute settlement;
• community conduct.

These customs were closely linked to the matrilineal clan system.

Settlement of Disputes

Many disputes were settled within the community through discussion and customary procedures.

The aim was generally to:

• determine responsibility;
• provide compensation where necessary;
• restore relations between families;
• maintain social harmony.

The Nokma and village elders often played important roles in this process.

Traditional Land Use and Jhum Cultivation

Traditional Garo agriculture was strongly associated with shifting cultivation, commonly known as jhum.

The Nokma played an important role in determining which portions of A’king land could be used for cultivation.

The usual pattern involved:

• selection of a cultivation area;
• clearing of vegetation;
• burning of dried vegetation;
• cultivation for a limited period;
• leaving the land fallow;
• shifting cultivation to another area.

The system depended on community regulation of land rather than permanent individual ownership of every cultivated plot.

Importance of Jhum to Traditional Society

Jhum cultivation was not merely an agricultural technique. It was linked with:

• land administration;
• community cooperation;
• seasonal rituals;
• village organisation;
• customary rights.

Agriculture and political organisation were therefore closely connected.

Traditional Garo Economy

The traditional economy was based mainly on agriculture and use of local natural resources.

Major activities included:

• jhum cultivation;
• hunting;
• fishing;
• collection of forest produce;
• livestock rearing;
• weaving;
• local trade.

Rice was an important staple crop, while other crops were grown according to local conditions.

Community access to forests and water resources remained an important part of economic life.

Traditional Religion

Before the spread of Christianity, the Garos followed an indigenous religious tradition commonly associated with Songsarek beliefs.

Traditional religion emphasised relationships between human beings, ancestors, nature and spiritual forces.

Religious practices included:

• rituals connected with agriculture;
• offerings to spiritual beings;
• ceremonies for community welfare;
• observances connected with illness and misfortune;
• rites associated with birth, marriage and death.

Religion was deeply integrated into social and economic life.

Songsarek Tradition

The term Songsarek is used for the indigenous religious tradition of the Garos.

Songsarek beliefs involved a complex world of spiritual beings and customary rituals rather than a single centralised religious institution.

The tradition was closely linked with:

• agriculture;
• forests;
• ancestors;
• household rituals;
• village ceremonies.

Although Christianity later became widespread in the Garo Hills, Songsarek traditions continue to form an important part of Garo cultural history.

Wangala Festival

Wangala is one of the most important traditional festivals of the Garos.

It is closely associated with the agricultural cycle and is celebrated after the harvest.

The festival is traditionally connected with Misi Saljong, a deity associated with fertility and agricultural prosperity.

Major features include:

• thanksgiving after harvest;
• drumming and dancing;
• community gatherings;
• traditional dress;
• ritual observances.

Wangala is popularly known as the Hundred Drums Festival because of the prominent role of traditional drums in large celebrations.

Nokpante

The Nokpante was an important traditional institution in Garo society. It functioned as a bachelor’s dormitory or youth house for unmarried young men in many traditional villages.

It was not merely a sleeping place. The Nokpante served as a centre for:

• social education;
• transmission of traditions;
• training in community responsibilities;
• development of discipline;
• preparation for hunting and other collective activities.

Older members instructed younger men in customary values, skills and responsibilities.

Social Importance of Nokpante

The Nokpante helped transmit knowledge from one generation to another.

Young men could learn:

• oral traditions;
• songs and dances;
• agricultural skills;
• hunting practices;
• social customs;
• community responsibilities.

It therefore played an important role in maintaining traditional Garo culture.

Traditional Village Life

The traditional Garo village was both a social and economic community.

Families depended on one another for:

• agricultural labour;
• construction;
• ceremonies;
• defence;
• resource management.

This encouraged strong collective participation.

The authority of the Nokma was therefore embedded within a wider system of clan rights and community cooperation.

Position of Women

Women occupied an important position because Garo society was matrilineal.

Their significance was particularly visible in:

• inheritance;
• continuity of the clan;
• transmission of family property;
• household organisation.

However, formal representation in many customary political matters was traditionally exercised by men.

This created a distinctive division between matrilineal ownership and inheritance on one side and male representation in many public affairs on the other.

Marriage

Marriage was governed by clan rules.

A person was expected to marry outside his or her own ma’chong.

Marriage therefore served not only as a relationship between individuals but also as a connection between different clans.

Customary marriage rules helped:

• prevent marriage among close clan relatives;
• strengthen relations between clans;
• maintain the matrilineal social system.

Political Organisation of the Garo Hills

There was historically no unified Garo kingdom covering the entire Garo Hills.

Instead, political authority was dispersed among numerous villages and A’king territories.

The basic political arrangement can be understood as:

Ma’chong → A’king → Nokma → Village Community

This should not be interpreted as a rigid administrative hierarchy. These institutions represented interconnected aspects of kinship, territory and local governance.

Difference from Khasi and Jaintia Political Systems

Traditional Garo political organisation differed considerably from the neighbouring systems.

British Contact and Changes

British expansion into the Garo Hills during the nineteenth century gradually altered traditional political organisation.

Colonial authorities sought to:

• establish administrative control;
• collect information about land and villages;
• regulate frontier areas;
• suppress resistance;
• recognise or work through certain traditional authorities.

The British often found the decentralised political structure difficult to control because there was no single Garo ruler with authority over the entire region.

Impact on Traditional Institutions

Despite colonial intervention, the Nokma and A’king system survived.

Traditional authorities continued to play important roles in:

• customary land management;
• village affairs;
• clan matters;
• dispute resolution.

These institutions later had to operate within new administrative and constitutional structures.

Garo Traditional Institutions after Independence

After independence, the traditional institutions of the Garo Hills continued alongside modern administration.

The creation of the Garo Hills Autonomous District Council under the Sixth Schedule provided constitutional protection for several areas of customary governance.

Today, traditional systems interact with:

• village institutions;
• Autonomous District Council administration;
• Meghalaya State Government;
• constitutional and statutory laws.

The Nokma and A’king system remains particularly significant in matters of customary land rights.

Important Terms

Frequently Asked Questions

Who are the Garos?

The Garos or A’chiks are an indigenous community concentrated mainly in the Garo Hills of Meghalaya and adjoining regions.

What was the traditional political system of the Garos?

Traditional Garo political organisation was decentralised and based mainly on villages, clans and A’king territories rather than a centralised kingdom.

Who is a Nokma?

A Nokma is the traditional custodian and representative of an A’king territory. The Nokma plays an important role in land management and village affairs.

What is an A’king?

An A’king is a customary territory associated with a matrilineal Garo clan. It may include agricultural land, forests, water sources and other community resources.

Was the Nokma a king?

No. The Nokma was not an absolute monarch. The office functioned within customary law, clan rights and community traditions.

What is a ma’chong?

A ma’chong is a matrilineal Garo clan. Clan identity passes through the mother’s line.

What is a Nokna?

The Nokna is the female heir through whom family property and lineage rights are traditionally continued.

What was the Nokpante?

The Nokpante was a traditional bachelor’s dormitory where young men received social education, cultural training and instruction in community responsibilities.

What is Songsarek?

Songsarek refers to the indigenous religious tradition of the Garos, involving traditional beliefs, rituals and spiritual practices.

What is Wangala?

Wangala is the traditional harvest festival of the Garos, associated with thanksgiving, community celebration and agricultural prosperity.

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Jaintia Kingdom: Origin and Political Development

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