The medieval tribal society of Jharkhand was organised around villages, clans, customary institutions and control over land and forests. Political authority did not depend only on regional dynasties such as the Nagvanshis, Cheros or Singh rulers. Across large parts of the plateau, indigenous communities maintained their own systems of village administration, dispute settlement, land regulation and collective decision-making.

This created a layered political structure in which regional kingship existed alongside tribal self-government. A Raja might claim authority over a large territory, but everyday administration in many villages continued through traditional institutions. This coexistence of royal power and customary authority was one of the defining features of medieval Jharkhand.

For the wider political background, see Medieval Period in Jharkhand.

Major Tribal Communities of Medieval Jharkhand

Medieval Jharkhand was inhabited by several indigenous communities, each with its own social and political traditions. These communities were distributed across different ecological and political regions of the Chotanagpur Plateau.

Important groups included:

• Munda
• Oraon
• Ho
• Santhal
• Bhumij
• Chero
• Kharwar
• other forest and agrarian communities

Their institutions differed from region to region, but several common features can be identified: strong village organisation, clan-based social structure, customary land rights and collective responsibility.

For the wider social background, see Tribes of Jharkhand.

Extra Information — Tribal Society Was Politically Organised

Tribal communities should not be described as politically unorganised forest populations. Many possessed clearly defined village heads, territorial authorities, councils, customary courts and rules governing land and social conduct.

Village as the Basic Political Unit

The village formed the foundation of tribal political organisation. Most everyday questions relating to land, marriage, disputes, agriculture, forests and community discipline were settled locally.

Village political life generally dealt with:

• allocation and use of land;
• settlement of disputes;
• regulation of forests and common resources;
• organisation of festivals and rituals;
• collection of customary contributions;
• maintenance of social discipline.

The village was therefore simultaneously an economic, social and political unit.

Clan-Based Social Organisation

Many communities were organised into clans or lineages that regulated marriage, inheritance and social obligations. Clan membership created a wider network of solidarity extending beyond a single household.

Clans could influence:

• marriage rules;
• ritual obligations;
• access to ancestral land;
• settlement patterns;
• political cooperation.

This gave tribal society a strong collective character.

Customary Law

Tribal communities followed customary laws transmitted through practice rather than through written legal codes. These customs regulated both private and community affairs.

Important areas covered by customary law included:

• inheritance;
• marriage;
• land rights;
• village boundaries;
• compensation for offences;
• use of forests;
• settlement of disputes.

Traditional councils and recognised community authorities interpreted these customs.

Extra Information — Customary Law Was Not Informal in the Sense of Being Random

Although most tribal laws were unwritten, they were not arbitrary. Communities possessed established rules, precedents and recognised authorities responsible for applying them. Colonial officials later encountered many of these systems when attempting to introduce formal courts and land records.

Munda Political Organisation

The Munda community developed one of the most important village-based political systems in central Chotanagpur. The structure combined clan relationships with territorial organisation.

At the village level, the Munda functioned as an important secular headman, while religious functions were often associated with the Pahan.

The Munda political system therefore distinguished between different forms of authority.

Role of the Munda

The village Munda was associated with:

• village leadership;
• land and settlement matters;
• representation of the village;
• organisation of community affairs;
• settlement of local disputes.

His authority came primarily from custom and community recognition rather than from appointment by a distant state.

Role of the Pahan

The Pahan performed important religious and ritual functions.

His responsibilities included:

• conducting village rituals;
• worship of local deities;
• ceremonies connected with agriculture;
• maintaining the sacred relationship between the community and its territory.

The distinction between Munda and Pahan illustrates the separation of secular and ritual authority within village society.

Manki System

Groups of Munda villages could be associated with a larger territorial authority known as the Manki.

The Manki helped coordinate:

• relations among villages;
• larger disputes;
• political communication;
• collective responsibilities.

This created a political structure extending beyond the individual village.

Khuntkatti System

The Khuntkatti system was closely connected with Munda settlement and landholding. It was based on the idea that families or lineages that originally cleared and settled a village possessed customary rights over its land.

The system linked:

• ancestry;
• settlement history;
• landholding;
• political membership.

Land therefore represented more than an economic asset. It was connected with clan identity and community history.

Extra Information — Land Was Social, Not Merely Economic

In many tribal societies of Jharkhand, land was not treated simply as individually owned property that could be freely bought and sold. Rights were often embedded within clan membership, settlement history and community obligations.

Oraon Political Organisation

The Oraons, also known as Kurukh, formed another major community of central and western Chotanagpur.

Their village society developed its own political and social institutions, including systems of community leadership and inter-village organisation.

The village remained the basic administrative unit, while wider social coordination took place through regional institutions.

Parha System

The Parha system was one of the most important political institutions associated with Oraon society.

A Parha generally represented a grouping of several villages that cooperated in:

• dispute settlement;
• social regulation;
• collective ceremonies;
• defence and cooperation;
• inter-village matters.

This gave Oraon political organisation a structure extending beyond individual settlements.

Parha Council

The Parha council provided a mechanism for handling issues that could not be resolved within one village.

Its functions included:

• adjudication of larger disputes;
• regulation of inter-village relationships;
• protection of customary norms;
• coordination of collective activities.

The system demonstrates that tribal administration could operate at both village and supra-village levels.

Ho Political Organisation

The Ho people developed particularly strong political institutions in Singhbhum and Kolhan.

Their society was organised around autonomous villages connected through the Munda-Manki system.

The strength of these institutions later became one of the principal reasons why the rulers of Porahat and eventually the British found it difficult to impose complete direct control over Kolhan.

Munda in Ho Society

In Ho villages, the Munda functioned as the traditional village head.

His responsibilities included:

• representation of the village;
• land and settlement matters;
• dispute resolution;
• communication with higher authorities.

The position was embedded within the customary political organisation of the community.

Manki in Ho Society

A number of villages could be organised under a Manki, who exercised authority at a wider territorial level.

The structure can be summarised as:

Village → Munda → Group of villages → Manki

This system later remained important even under colonial administration.

Kolhan and Ho Autonomy

The Ho-dominated region of Kolhan retained a high degree of practical autonomy.

The Raja of Porahat could claim political authority over the wider Singhbhum region, but many Ho villages continued to regulate their own internal affairs.

This created a distinction between:

Royal territorial claim and actual village-level authority

The political importance of this distinction can be seen in the history of the Singhbhum and the Singh Dynasty.

Extra Information — Why Kolhan Was Difficult to Control

The strength of Kolhan lay not in one capital or one fort but in a network of politically organised villages. An outside ruler could defeat one chief without automatically gaining control over hundreds of autonomous settlements.

Bhumij Political Organisation

The Bhumij were especially important in eastern Jharkhand and the adjoining Jungle Mahal region. Their society produced several local chiefs and ruling houses, including political traditions associated with Dhalbhum and Barabhum.

Bhumij political organisation combined:

• village communities;
• clan ties;
• territorial chiefship;
• military mobilisation.

Some Bhumij chiefs gradually developed into regional rulers or zamindars.

From Tribal Chief to Raja

The political development of several Bhumij ruling houses followed a recognisable pattern:

Village or clan chief → control over wider territory → hereditary chiefship → regional Raja or zamindar

This transformation is particularly visible in the history of Dhalbhum Raj.

The process demonstrates that tribal political institutions and regional monarchy were not completely separate systems. One could develop from the other over time.

Chero Political Organisation

The Cheros developed a powerful regional kingdom in Palamu. Their political history shows another possible direction of tribal political development: the emergence of a strongly fortified monarchy.

Chero rule developed around:

• hereditary kingship;
• local chiefs;
• fortified centres;
• agricultural revenue;
• village institutions.

Under rulers such as Medini Rai, the Chero kingdom became one of the most powerful regional states of western Jharkhand.

Yet even within the Chero kingdom, local communities retained considerable customary authority.

Kharwar Communities

The Kharwars formed an important community in western and northern Jharkhand, particularly in areas around Palamu and neighbouring regions.

They possessed traditions of:

• local chiefship;
• control over land;
• forest-based livelihoods;
• military participation.

In later periods, sections of the Kharwar population became involved in conflicts over land and political authority.

Their presence illustrates the ethnic and political diversity of the Palamu region.

Santhal Society

The Santhals later became especially concentrated in the eastern and northeastern parts of Jharkhand.

Santhal society developed strong village and territorial institutions based on customary authority.

The village political structure included recognised offices responsible for:

• administration;
• religious affairs;
• communication;
• social discipline.

Although the large-scale Santhal settlement of some regions intensified in later periods, the broader tradition of tribal village organisation remained an important feature of eastern Jharkhand.

Tribal Political Organisation and Regional Kingdoms

The existence of strong tribal institutions did not prevent regional kingdoms from developing. Instead, Jharkhand often contained several levels of political authority simultaneously.

A simplified structure might look like:

Emperor or external power

↓

Regional Raja

↓

Local chief

↓

Village authority

↓

Clan and household

Each level exercised different kinds of power.

Regional Rulers and Tribal Villages

Regional rulers generally focused on:

• tribute;
• defence;
• territorial politics;
• major revenue matters.

Village institutions focused more heavily on:

• land;
• cultivation;
• marriage;
• customary disputes;
• forests;
• community affairs.

Because the two levels performed different functions, they could coexist for long periods.

Extra Information — Political Authority Was Layered

A village could recognise the Raja’s wider political authority while still settling its own land disputes through customary institutions. This is why the existence of a kingdom did not automatically mean the disappearance of tribal self-government.

Relationship with the Nagvanshi Kingdom

The Nagvanshi rulers of Chotanagpur governed a region with substantial Munda and Oraon populations.

Nagvanshi kingship developed above existing village and clan institutions rather than replacing them entirely.

The rulers were primarily concerned with:

• political loyalty;
• territorial control;
• collection of dues;
• external relations.

Local institutions continued to regulate much of everyday rural life.

This coexistence helped the Nagvanshi dynasty govern a wide territory without constructing an elaborate bureaucracy in every village.

Relationship with the Chero Kingdom

A similar relationship existed in Palamu.

The Chero Raja controlled forts, revenue and external political relations, but village communities and local chiefs continued to possess important responsibilities.

The state therefore functioned through:

Royal authority + local chiefship + customary village administration

This decentralised structure also helped the kingdom survive repeated external attacks.

Relationship with the Singh Dynasty

The relationship between the Singh rulers of Porahat and the Ho communities provides one of the clearest examples of limited royal authority.

Porahat represented dynastic kingship, while Kolhan retained strong village-based autonomy.

The Raja could influence regional politics, but direct control over every Ho village remained difficult.

This created recurrent tensions over:

• tribute;
• territory;
• village autonomy;
• political loyalty.

Land as the Foundation of Tribal Society

Land was central to tribal political organisation.

It provided:

• food;
• social identity;
• clan continuity;
• ritual significance;
• political membership.

Rights over land were therefore deeply connected with community membership.

This differed significantly from later colonial attempts to define land primarily as taxable property.

Customary Land Rights

Traditional rights could depend on:

• first settlement;
• clan membership;
• clearing of forest;
• community recognition;
• hereditary occupation.

Such rights were often collective or layered rather than based on absolute individual ownership.

Forests and Tribal Political Life

Forests were central to indigenous society.

They supplied:

• food;
• timber;
• fuel;
• medicinal plants;
• hunting grounds;
• grazing land;
• ritual spaces.

Political regulation of forests was therefore an important part of community governance.

A village’s authority often extended beyond cultivated fields into surrounding forest territory.

Sacred Landscapes

Forests, hills, groves and water sources could also possess religious significance.

Sacred groves and ritual sites reinforced the link between:

• territory;
• ancestors;
• community;
• religion.

This meant that loss of land or forest access could threaten not only livelihoods but also the cultural identity of the community.

Economic Organisation

The tribal economy was based largely on agriculture combined with forest use.

Important activities included:

• cultivation;
• livestock rearing;
• hunting;
• gathering;
• lac collection;
• local exchange;
• craft production.

The exact balance varied according to geography and community.

Agriculture increasingly became dominant in settled areas, but forest resources remained essential.

Social Decision-Making

Collective decision-making was an important feature of tribal society.

Important community questions were often discussed through:

• village councils;
• clan elders;
• recognised traditional leaders;
• territorial councils.

The aim was frequently to restore community balance rather than impose punishment in the manner of a centralised state court.

Dispute Settlement

Disputes could involve:

• land;
• marriage;
• inheritance;
• social conduct;
• damage to property;
• inter-village boundaries.

Traditional authorities investigated the matter and imposed customary penalties or compensation.

This reduced dependence on external judicial institutions.

Political Role of Religious Authorities

Religious and political authority were often interconnected but not always concentrated in the same person.

In many communities, specialised religious figures performed ritual functions while secular headmen managed political affairs.

This division helped maintain both:

• sacred authority;
• administrative authority.

The Munda-Pahan distinction provides one important example.

Defence and Military Organisation

Tribal political communities could mobilise rapidly during conflict.

Military organisation generally relied on:

• village networks;
• local weapons;
• knowledge of terrain;
• collective mobilisation.

Because there was often no large permanent army, military strength depended on the ability to mobilise communities when necessary.

Terrain as Defence

Jharkhand’s forests and hills provided major advantages to local communities.

They could:

• use forest routes unknown to outsiders;
• avoid large armies;
• protect villages;
• organise surprise attacks;
• retreat into difficult terrain.

This military geography later played a major role in resistance to British rule.

Extra Information — No Permanent Army Did Not Mean No Military Organisation

Tribal societies often lacked standing armies, but they possessed community-based systems of mobilisation. In a crisis, village networks could rapidly provide fighters familiar with local terrain.

Women’s Position in Tribal Society

The social position of women varied across communities, but women played important roles in:

• agriculture;
• household economy;
• forest collection;
• festivals;
• community production.

Land and inheritance rules differed among groups, and political offices were often male-dominated. Nevertheless, the economic functioning of tribal society depended heavily on women’s labour and participation.

Social Equality and Hierarchy

Tribal societies generally displayed less rigid caste stratification than many contemporary agrarian societies of the plains. However, they were not completely without hierarchy.

Differences could exist between:

• chiefs and ordinary villagers;
• founding lineages and later settlers;
• ritual specialists and other households;
• wealthier and poorer families.

The rise of regional chiefships and zamindaris gradually produced sharper distinctions in some areas.

Interaction with Hindu Political and Religious Traditions

Over time, several tribal ruling houses adopted elements of broader Hindu kingship.

These included:

• royal titles;
• genealogies;
• temple patronage;
• Brahmanical rituals;
• Sanskritised names.

This process was especially visible among some regional ruling families.

However, indigenous practices frequently continued alongside the newly adopted traditions.

Interaction with Islam and Mughal Rule

Direct Mughal administration affected tribal society unevenly.

The greatest Mughal interest was usually directed towards regional Rajas such as the Nagvanshis and Cheros, rather than direct interference in village life.

As a result, many indigenous institutions continued functioning despite changes in higher political authority.

Mughal influence was strongest through:

• tribute demands;
• relations with Rajas;
• revenue arrangements;
• military campaigns.

Village-level cultural and political organisation remained comparatively autonomous.

Why Tribal Political Institutions Survived

Several factors helped these institutions survive for centuries:

• strong customary legitimacy;
• difficult geography;
• absence of direct bureaucracy in remote villages;
• collective ownership traditions;
• dependence on local knowledge;
• political usefulness to regional rulers.

A Raja could often govern more effectively by recognising existing village institutions rather than attempting to replace them.

Transition towards Colonial Rule

The arrival of the East India Company gradually disturbed this balance.

British administrators attempted to create:

• fixed revenue demands;
• written land records;
• formal courts;
• police institutions;
• more clearly defined property rights.

These measures frequently conflicted with customary systems.

The result was growing tension over:

• land;
• forests;
• taxation;
• authority of village headmen;
• role of outsiders.

These conflicts later contributed to several major tribal uprisings in Jharkhand.

Medieval Institutions and Later Tribal Resistance

Many nineteenth-century uprisings cannot be understood without the medieval and pre-colonial political background.

Resistance movements often sought to protect or restore:

• customary land rights;
• village autonomy;
• traditional chiefs;
• community access to forests;
• indigenous political institutions.

Thus, later anti-colonial resistance had deep historical roots.

Major Tribal Political Systems of Jharkhand

Village and Regional Authority: Comparison

Major Political Regions and Tribal Communities

Key Features of Medieval Tribal Society

The most important characteristics were:

1. Village-centred political organisation
2. Clan-based social structure
3. Customary land rights
4. Collective use of forests and common resources
5. Traditional councils for dispute settlement
6. Territorial federations extending beyond single villages
7. Coexistence with regional kingship
8. Strong local autonomy
9. Community-based defence
10. Continuity of customary law

Historical Significance

Medieval tribal society formed the foundation of Jharkhand’s later social and political history. Regional kingdoms came and went, but many indigenous institutions survived because they remained embedded in village life.

Their historical importance lies in:

• preservation of customary self-government;
• development of systems such as Munda-Manki and Parha;
• protection of community land rights;
• coexistence with regional dynasties;
• maintenance of political autonomy in forest regions;
• creation of the social foundations of later tribal resistance.

The history of medieval Jharkhand therefore cannot be understood only through kings and dynasties. It must also include the village communities, traditional councils, clan institutions and territorial organisations that governed much of everyday life.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1. What was the basic unit of tribal political organisation in medieval Jharkhand?

The village was the basic political, economic and social unit in most tribal communities.

2. Were tribal societies politically unorganised?

No. They possessed recognised village headmen, councils, territorial authorities and customary legal systems.

3. What was the Munda-Manki system?

It was a traditional political structure in which the Munda headed the village while the Manki exercised authority over a group of villages.

4. Which communities used the Munda-Manki system?

It was particularly important among the Munda and Ho communities, although its precise functioning differed regionally.

5. What was the Parha system?

The Parha system was an important Oraon institution that linked several villages into a wider political and social organisation.

6. What was Khuntkatti?

Khuntkatti was a customary landholding system associated particularly with Munda settlement, in which founding lineages possessed hereditary rights connected with the original clearing and settlement of land.

7. Who was the Pahan?

The Pahan was an important village religious functionary responsible for rituals and worship connected with the community and agricultural cycle.

8. What was the role of the Munda?

The Munda generally acted as a village headman, dealing with administrative, land and community matters.

9. What was the role of the Manki?

The Manki exercised authority over a larger group of villages and helped coordinate political and administrative matters beyond the individual village.

10. What was Kolhan?

Kolhan was the Ho-dominated region of Singhbhum where strong customary village institutions survived.

11. Did the Raja of Porahat directly control all Ho villages?

No. Many Ho villages retained substantial autonomy through their own customary institutions.

12. What was the political importance of the Bhumij community?

Bhumij society produced numerous local chiefs and ruling houses, particularly in eastern Jharkhand and the Jungle Mahal region.

13. How were the Cheros politically organised?

The Cheros developed from regional chiefship into a powerful hereditary kingdom centred in Palamu.

14. What role did clans play in tribal society?

Clans regulated matters such as marriage, ancestry, land rights, ritual obligations and social identity.

15. How were disputes settled?

Traditional village councils, elders and recognised customary authorities settled disputes according to community norms.

16. Were tribal laws written?

Most were customary and unwritten, but they followed recognised principles and established community practices.

17. Why was land so important in tribal society?

Land was connected not only with agriculture but also with clan identity, ancestry, political membership and religious traditions.

18. Why were forests important?

Forests provided food, timber, grazing, medicines and sacred spaces while also serving as natural defensive territory.

19. Did regional kings abolish tribal institutions?

Generally no. Regional kingdoms usually operated above existing village systems rather than replacing them completely.

20. How did the Nagvanshis govern tribal villages?

The Nagvanshi rulers exercised wider political and revenue authority, while many local matters continued to be managed by customary village institutions.

21. Why did tribal political institutions survive for so long?

They survived because of strong local legitimacy, difficult geography, community participation and their practical usefulness to regional rulers.

22. How did British rule affect these institutions?

Colonial revenue systems, courts, police and written land records increasingly interfered with customary institutions and landholding arrangements.

23. Why did tribal uprisings occur later?

Many uprisings developed from attempts to defend customary land rights, village autonomy, forests and traditional political authority against colonial interference.

24. What is the main feature of medieval tribal political organisation in Jharkhand?

Its defining feature was the coexistence of strong village-level customary self-government with wider regional dynastic authority.