Learnpro

Chola Empire (9th -13th century AD): Administration, Local Govt., Village Economy, Society

Chola Empire

Foundation of the Chola Empire

The Chola Empire was founded by Vijayalaya, who initially served as a feudatory of the Pallavas. His rise began with the capture of Tanjore in 850 CE, marking the start of a formidable empire. By the late 9th century, the Cholas had emerged victorious over the Pallavas of Kanchi (Tondaimandalam) and significantly weakened the Pandyas, bringing the southern Tamil country under their firm control.

The Chola dynasty played a pivotal role in shaping South Indian history through their significant contributions to administration, society, and architecture. This era marked the peak of their maritime capabilities, as well as a golden age of artistic and architectural achievements.

Chola Empire MAp
Chola Empire map

Military Conquests

The Role of Maritime Power

Apart from conquering South Indian kingdoms, the Chola dynasty’s unique achievement was their rise as a maritime power. They established a formidable navy, which they used to expand their territories and advance their economic and political interests.

The Chola dynasty reached its zenith during the reigns of Raja Raja I and Rajendra I, whose rule marked the formative period of Chola imperialism.

Raja Raja Chola I (Reigned 985–1014 CE)

Raja Raja Chola I embarked on an aggressive campaign of conquest, which solidified the empire’s dominance in South India:

  • Southern Conquests: He attacked and defeated a confederation of the Pandya and Chera kingdoms and the rulers of Ceylon (Sri Lanka). Following the defeat of the Ceylonese king Mahinda V, the northern region of Sri Lanka was annexed, with Polonnaruva established as the capital of the Chola province.
  • Commercial Expansion: Raja Raja annexed the Maldives, furthering the Chola Empire’s commercial interests and maritime influence.
  • Conquests in Modern Mysore: He also extended Chola control to parts of modern-day Karnataka, intensifying the longstanding rivalry with the Chalukyas.

Rajendra Chola I (Reigned 1014–1044 CE)

Rajendra Chola I, who initially ruled jointly with his father, carried forward the expansionist policies of Raja Raja I and achieved even greater military success:

  1. South Indian Campaigns:
    • Rajendra conquered Ceylon extensively, consolidating Chola control over the island.
    • The Pandya and Kerala regions were annexed and restructured as a viceroyalty under the Chola king.
  2. Northern Campaigns:
    • Proceeding through Kalinga, Rajendra attacked Bengal, defeating the Pala ruler Mahipala in 1022 CE. Although no northern territory was annexed, this victory demonstrated the Chola Empire’s far-reaching power.
    • To commemorate this campaign, Rajendra assumed the title Gangaikondachola, meaning “the Chola conqueror of the Ganga.” He also established a new capital, Gangaikondacholapuram, near the Kaveri River.
  3. Maritime and Overseas Conquests:
    • Rajendra’s naval expeditions were a cornerstone of his reign. His fleet invaded the Malaya Peninsula and the Srivijaya Empire, which included Sumatra, Java, and neighboring islands. These campaigns aimed to safeguard trade routes to China and expand Chola influence in Southeast Asia.
    • He sent diplomatic missions to China, further strengthening political and economic ties.
  4. Cultural Influence:
    • Rajendra’s conquests led to the spread of Indian culture, including language, sculpture, and temple architecture, across Southeast Asia. The Chola maritime campaigns are notable for their role in exporting Indian culture beyond the subcontinent.

Maritime Achievements of Cholas

The Cholas were pioneers in recognizing the strategic importance of naval power. They utilized their navy effectively for both military and economic purposes, transforming the Bay of Bengal into a Chola lake. Their unique achievements in maritime conquests include:

  1. Securing Trade Routes: The Chola navy ensured the security of trade routes connecting India to China, Southeast Asia, and beyond.
  2. Expanding Cultural Influence: The cultural impact of the Chola conquests in Southeast Asia included the spread of Indian traditions, temple architecture, and religious practices.
  3. Naval Innovation: The Chola navy, one of the earliest organized naval forces in India, was instrumental in maintaining the empire’s dominance.

The military and maritime achievements of the Chola dynasty remain unparalleled in Indian history, showcasing their innovative strategies, far-reaching influence, and lasting legacy. The Chola kings, particularly Raja Raja I and Rajendra I, not only expanded their empire but also laid the foundation for a prosperous and culturally vibrant South India.

Chola Empire in South east Asia and South Asia
Chola Empire influence in South east Asia and South Asia

Chola Administration: A Robust System of Governance

During the Chola period, a highly organized and efficient administrative system evolved, setting a benchmark for governance in medieval South India. The Chola rulers combined centralized authority with localized autonomy, ensuring effective management of their vast empire.

1. Central Administration

Monarchical Authority

  • The king was the supreme authority in the Chola administration, wielding absolute power over all aspects of governance.
  • He was assisted by a council of ministers known as Udankuttam, who advised him on important matters of state.
  • The prestige and power of the monarchy were enhanced by the vast resources and extent of the empire.

Capital Cities

  • Major capital cities, such as Tanjore and Gangaikondacholapuram, symbolized the grandeur of the Chola Empire. These cities hosted large royal courts and temples, reflecting the authority of the king.

Hereditary Monarchy

  • The Chola government followed a hereditary monarchy, where the rule of primogeniture generally prevailed.
  • The king typically appointed a Yuvaraja (heir) during his reign to ensure a smooth succession.

Royal Tours

  • To maintain administrative efficiency, the Chola kings undertook frequent royal tours, enabling direct supervision of their territories and addressing local issues.

Administrative Machinery

  • The Chola administration included a network of officials at various levels:
    • Perundanam: Higher-ranking officials.
    • Sirudanam: Lower-ranking officials.
  • These officials were responsible for implementing royal directives and managing various administrative departments.

2. Revenue Administration

The Chola revenue system was one of the most advanced and well-organized of its time:

Land Surveys and Classification

  • All lands were meticulously surveyed and classified for revenue assessment. This ensured fair taxation based on the land’s productivity and fertility.

Collection of Revenue

  • Land revenue was the primary source of income for the state and was collected in cash or kind.
  • The state demanded one-third of the gross produce as revenue under the reign of Raja Raja I.
  • Revenue was also collected through:
    • Tolls and customs duties on goods transported between regions.
    • Professional taxes levied on various occupations.
    • Dues on ceremonial occasions, such as marriages.
    • Judicial fines imposed as penalties.

Tax Remissions

  • During periods of natural calamities or economic hardships, the state provided tax remissions, showcasing the Cholas’ sensitivity toward their subjects.

Expenditure

  • Revenue collected was utilized for:
    • Maintenance of the king and his court.
    • Salaries of the army and navy.
    • Construction and upkeep of roads, irrigation tanks, and canals.

3. Military Administration

The Chola Empire maintained a well-equipped and disciplined standing army, which played a crucial role in their conquests and defense.

Composition of the Army

  • The Chola military included:
    • Elephants: Used for their strength in battle.
    • Cavalry: Skilled horse-mounted units.
    • Infantry: Foot soldiers forming the bulk of the army.
    • Navy: A powerful fleet that dominated the Bay of Bengal.

Royal Troops

  • The Kaikkolaperumpadai served as the regular royal army.
  • A specialized troop, known as the Velaikkarars, acted as bodyguards to the king. They were renowned for their loyalty and readiness to sacrifice their lives for the monarch, even immolating themselves upon the king’s death.

Military Training and Cantonments

  • Great attention was paid to the training of soldiers, with military cantonments called kadagams established across the empire.
  • The Chola navy, reaching its pinnacle during this period, was instrumental in maritime conquests and safeguarding trade routes.

4. Provincial Administration

The Chola Empire was divided into several administrative divisions, ensuring efficient governance across its vast territories:

Administrative Divisions

  • The empire was organized into:
    • Mandalams: Provinces.
    • Valanadus: Subdivisions of mandalams.
    • Nadus: Smaller units within valanadus.

Governance of Provinces

  • Mandalams were governed by royal princes or appointed officers, ensuring that central authority was maintained in the provinces.

Officials

  • Provincial administration was carried out by:
    • Perundaram: Higher officials responsible for significant administrative tasks.
    • Sirutaram: Lower officials who managed routine administrative functions.
  • Officials were compensated with land assignments known as jivitas, awarded based on their rank and responsibilities.

Local Self-Government Under the Cholas

The Chola period is celebrated for its advanced system of local self-government, particularly its village autonomy. The hallmark of this governance was the intricate functioning of village assemblies and committees, which reached their zenith during the Chola rule. This system was not only efficient but also democratic in many respects, fostering local accountability and participation.

Village Assemblies and Committees

The system of village governance under the Cholas was facilitated by three types of assemblies:

  1. Sabhas: Assemblies in Brahmin-dominated villages.
  2. Urs: Assemblies in non-Brahmin villages.
  3. Nagaram: Assemblies of traders and merchants.

These assemblies managed various local affairs, including administration, revenue collection, and public welfare.

The Uttaramerur Inscriptions

The Uttaramerur inscriptions, dated to around 920 CE during the reign of Parantaka Chola I (907–955 CE), provide detailed insights into the functioning of village councils. Located in Kancheepuram district, Uttaramerur stands as a testament to the Chola era’s sophisticated self-governance system. This inscription is considered a written constitution of the village assembly and offers comprehensive details about:

  • Formation and functioning of village councils.
  • Elections and qualifications for membership.
  • Administrative, judicial, and commercial regulations.
The Uttaramerur Inscriptions - Chola Empire
The Uttaramerur Inscriptions

Salient Features of Village Governance

Election System

The Chola period introduced a unique election process for village assemblies:

  • Villages were divided into 30 wards, with each ward electing one representative.
  • Elections were conducted using the Kudav Olai system, where names were written on palm-leaf tickets and drawn from a pot.
  • The entire village, including infants, had to attend the elections, except for the sick and those on pilgrimage.

Qualifications for Candidates

Candidates wishing to contest elections had to meet stringent criteria:

  1. Property Ownership: Candidates must own more than one-quarter veli of tax-paying land.
  2. Residence: They must reside in a house built on their land.
  3. Age: Candidates must be between 35 and 70 years old.
  4. Education: Knowledge of Mantrabrahmana (religious texts) was essential, and those who had mastered one Veda and a commentary were eligible even if they owned less land.
  5. Integrity: Candidates had to possess virtuous character, honest earnings, and a pure mind.

Disqualifications

Certain individuals and their relatives were barred from contesting elections:

  1. Non-Submission of Accounts: Candidates who failed to submit previous accounts of their service.
  2. Family Ties to Offenders: Relatives of individuals guilty of crimes like incest or theft.
  3. Ethical Failures: Those who accepted bribes, committed sins, or acted against public interests.
  4. Repeat Terms: Candidates who had served in any committee within the last three years.

Committees and Responsibilities

The elected members were assigned to specific committees, each responsible for managing critical aspects of village administration:

  1. Annual Committee: Oversaw the general administration.
  2. Garden Committee: Managed agricultural lands and gardens.
  3. Tank Committee: Maintained irrigation tanks and water resources.
  4. Gold Committee: Oversaw the testing and regulation of gold.
  5. Relief Committees: Provided support during droughts and other emergencies.

Members served for one year and could be recalled if they failed in their duties. New elections were held annually, and no individual could serve consecutive terms in the same committee.

Functions of the Village Assembly

The village assemblies managed various aspects of local governance, including:

  1. Agriculture and Irrigation: Maintenance of irrigation tanks and canals to ensure agricultural prosperity.
  2. Revenue Collection: Collection of taxes for the central government.
  3. Judicial Oversight: Settling local disputes and implementing regulations.
  4. Public Works: Construction and maintenance of roads, temples, and other infrastructure.
  5. Relief Measures: Providing assistance during natural calamities like droughts.

Democratic Practices in Village Governance

Despite being rooted in a hierarchical society, the Chola system of local self-government exhibited notable democratic traits:

  • Accountability: Elected representatives could be removed for corruption or misconduct.
  • Transparency: Public participation in elections ensured transparency in governance.
  • Inclusivity: Although limited to property owners and the educated, the system encouraged broad local involvement.

However, certain limitations persisted:

Central Oversight: Village assemblies operated autonomously but had to align with the central government’s policies.

Restricted Participation: Only landowners and specific groups could contest elections, excluding large sections of the population.

Mode of Election in the Chola Village Assemblies

The Chola system of village administration, especially as seen in the Uttaramerur inscriptions, was marked by its unique and meticulous election process. The process of electing representatives and forming committees was democratic for its time, relying on an innovative system of pot-tickets.

Election Procedure

  1. Preparation of Pot-Tickets
    • Names of eligible candidates from the thirty wards were written on palm-leaf tickets (known as Kudav Olai).
    • These tickets were bundled into packets, one for each ward, and placed in a pot.
  2. Assembly Gathering
    • A full meeting of the Great Assembly was convened. All members of the village, young and old, were required to attend.
    • Temple priests (Numbimar) present in the village on that day were seated in the inner hall of the assembly mandapa, where the election was held.
  3. Drawing the Pot-Tickets
    • The eldest priest would stand up, hold the pot aloft for everyone to see, and transfer one ward packet to an empty pot.
    • A young boy, who was unaware of the contents, would draw one ticket from the pot and hand it to the arbitrator (Madhyastha).
  4. Verification and Announcement
    • The arbitrator would receive the ticket on his palm and read the name aloud.
    • Other priests present would verify the name and announce it to the assembly.
    • This process was repeated until one representative was chosen for each of the thirty wards.

Formation of Committees

Once representatives were elected, they were allocated to various committees based on experience, expertise, and prior service:

  1. Annual Committee
    • Members who were advanced in learning or age, or had previously served on the Garden Committee and Tank Committee, were assigned to the Annual Committee.
  2. Garden and Tank Committees
    • Of the remaining representatives:
      • 12 members were chosen for the Garden Committee.
      • 6 members were assigned to the Tank Committee.
    • These were also selected through the pot-ticket system.
  3. Pancavara and Gold Committees
    • Separate elections were held for these committees.
    • From the 30 pot-tickets drawn:
      • 24 members were selected for the Gold Committee.
      • 6 members were selected for the Pancavara Committee.
    • Wards that had already been represented in the previous year’s committees were excluded from selection.

Committee Terms and Accountability

  1. Duration of Service
    • Members of the committees served for 360 days (one year) before new elections were held.
  2. Removal of Members
    • If a member was found guilty of misconduct or any offence, they were removed from their position immediately.
    • A new member was appointed through a fresh draw of pot-tickets.
  3. Accountability of Officials
    • Officials, such as accountants, were required to submit accounts for their term before being eligible for reappointment.
    • No accountant could close the accounts of another; they were required to handle their own records.

Significance of the King’s Order

The Chola emperor issued a royal decree ensuring the sanctity of the election process. The decree emphasized:

  • Committees must always be appointed by the pot-ticket system.
  • The emperor acted as a guardian of the assembly’s autonomy while ensuring its decisions aligned with the kingdom’s broader interests.

Villager’s Resolution

The villagers of Uttaramerur Caturvedimangalam made a solemn declaration that:

  • The election settlement was established for the prosperity of the village.
  • The aim was to ensure that wicked men perished and virtuous individuals prospered

Autonomous Functioning of Village Assemblies under the Cholas

The village assemblies during the Chola period showcased a blend of autonomy and centralized oversight. These assemblies operated based on their own constitutions, rooted in local customs and practices, making them a unique feature of Chola administration.

Autonomy of Village Assemblies

  1. Independent Governance:
    • Each village assembly functioned autonomously, addressing the local issues and grievances of its members.
    • Decisions involving more than one assembly were resolved through mutual deliberation.
  2. Democratic Characteristics:
    • Village assemblies provided a platform for airing grievances and solving problems, fostering participation.
    • This decentralized system lightened the administrative burden on the central government and minimized opposition, as people dealt with local matters directly.
  3. Strengthening the Community:
    • Assemblies like Ur, Sabha, and Nagaram handled essential administrative tasks, such as taxation, public works, and dispute resolution.
    • They played a vital role in integrating local communities into the larger framework of the Chola state.

Limitations of Democracy

While Chola village assemblies exhibited democratic traits, their practices were not entirely democratic in the modern sense:

  1. Absolute Monarchy:
    • The Chola polity was fundamentally an absolute monarchy.
    • Village assemblies had to align their decisions with the central government’s policies.
  2. Royal Supervision:
    • The central government, through its officers, exercised general supervision and could intervene during emergencies.
    • For instance, the Uttaramerur inscriptions reveal that Sabha resolutions were made in the presence of royal officials deputed by the king.
  3. Voting System:
    • Elections relied on a lot system (pot-tickets), not direct voting.
  4. Eligibility Restrictions:
    • Ur membership was limited to tax-paying landowners, excluding a significant portion of the population.
    • Sabha membership required criteria like property ownership, family antecedents, education, and good conduct.
    • Relatives of criminals, previous committee members, and others with disqualifications were barred from contesting.
  5. Water Supply Dependency:
    • Access to water supplies often determined whether a village had assemblies, leaving some areas without local governance structures.

Integration of Local and Central Governance

Centralized Oversight

  • Despite their autonomy, village assemblies functioned as part of the larger Chola administrative system.
  • Key features of this integration included:
    • The presence of royal representatives in assembly meetings, as seen in Uttaramerur and Tanjavur inscriptions.
    • Chola rulers like Raja Raja I issued specific directives to assemblies, such as those for the Brihadeshwara temple.

Revenue Collection

  • Assemblies such as Ur, Sabha, and Nagaram assessed and collected taxes, which they passed on to the central government.

Brahmana Sabhas and Taniyur Villages

  • Brahmana Sabhas had close ties to the Chola court, often receiving taniyur status, granting them functional autonomy.
  • Taniyur villages were independent administrative units, particularly in regions far from central control.

Role of Assemblies in Strengthening the State

  1. Agent of the Monarchy:
    • Assemblies like Nagaram acted as intermediaries for the monarchy, regulating trade, markets, and local commerce.
  2. Minimizing Opposition:
    • By allowing people to manage local issues, the Chola government reduced resistance to its authority.
  3. Efficiency in Governance:
    • Local administration handled village-level matters, enabling the central government to focus on broader state concerns.

Village Economy During the Chola Period

The Chola period witnessed a thriving village economy that was primarily agrarian but complemented by flourishing industries, active trade networks, and the integration of religious and economic life. Villages formed the backbone of the Chola administrative and economic system, with different types of settlements serving distinct roles.

Types of Villages

Villages under the Cholas were categorized into three main types based on their social composition and economic purpose:

  1. Intercaste Villages:
    • These were the most common type, inhabited by people of various castes.
    • Land was held by individuals across all classes, and the residents collectively paid taxes to the king in the form of land revenue.
  2. Brahmadeya Villages (Agrahara Villages):
    • These villages were grants of land to Brahmins by the Chola kings, exempting them from taxation.
    • The Brahmins held superior rights over the land, often as a corporate body of landholders.
    • The Brahmins did not personally cultivate the land. Instead, they employed:
      • The original agricultural communities in the region.
      • New settlers to cultivate previously uncultivated land, contributing to deforestation and agricultural expansion.
    • They established Kutimai, a system of subordinate land rights granted to artisans and service providers (e.g., washermen), ensuring essential services within the village.
    • Brahmadeya villages became hubs of social and economic integration, housing Brahmins, non-Brahmins, cultivators, and service providers.
  3. Devadana Villages:
    • These villages were granted to temples, and the revenue generated from them was dedicated to supporting temple activities.
    • Devadana villages gained prominence during the Chola period as temples emerged as the centers of life, serving religious, cultural, and economic roles.

Agricultural Prosperity

Agriculture was the cornerstone of the Chola economy, supported by state initiatives and community efforts:

  1. Reclamation of Land:
    • Forest lands were reclaimed for cultivation, significantly expanding agricultural output.
  2. Irrigation Systems:
    • Extensive irrigation tanks and canals were constructed and maintained, ensuring year-round water supply and boosting productivity.
  3. Temple-Centric Agriculture:
    • Many villages were linked to temples, which owned and managed vast tracts of agricultural land. This integration helped sustain both religious institutions and local economies.

Industrial and Artistic Flourishing

The Chola period saw significant advancements in industry and crafts:

  1. Weaving Industry:
    • Silk weaving, especially in Kanchipuram, flourished and became a hallmark of Chola craftsmanship.
  2. Metal Works:
    • The demand for images for temples and utensils spurred the growth of metallurgy.
    • Chola artisans were renowned for their expertise in crafting bronze idols, which remain iconic representations of Indian art.

Trade and Commerce

The Chola economy was marked by brisk trade and the integration of domestic and international markets:

  1. Merchant Guilds:
    • Villages often had Nagaram assemblies representing traders, who managed market centers and levied taxes on commerce.
    • Merchant guilds played a pivotal role in organizing trade and maintaining road networks.
  2. Road Infrastructure:
    • Trunk roads connecting villages facilitated the movement of goods, boosting local and long-distance trade.
  3. Currency:
    • The Cholas issued gold, silver, and copper coins in various denominations to support commerce.
  4. International Trade:
    • Commercial ties extended to China, Sumatra, Java, and Arabia.
    • Arabian horses were imported to strengthen the Chola cavalry.

Temples as Economic Centers

Temples during the Chola period were not merely religious sites but also hubs of economic activity:

  1. Employment and Livelihood:
    • Temples provided employment to artisans, craftsmen, and laborers.
    • They also attracted pilgrims, boosting local commerce.
  2. Wealth Distribution:
    • Temples managed significant resources, including revenue from Devadana villages, and played a role in redistributing wealth within the community.

Conclusion

The Chola administration was a well-organized and efficient system that balanced centralized authority with decentralized local governance. Their innovative approach to revenue collection, military organization, and provincial management not only ensured the stability of their vast empire but also facilitated its prosperity and cultural achievements. The Chola administrative model remains a significant milestone in the history of Indian governance.

Also read:

UPSC Courses

Print this Article🖨 Download as PDF 📄
Tags
Sharing is caring

Related Posts

Leave a Reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *