Jainism : An Overview of Ancient Indian Religions

Table of Contents

1. Emergence of Heterodox Sects in Ancient India

The 6th century B.C. was a significant period in Indian history, marking the rise of several heterodox sects that sought to challenge the dominance of orthodox Brahmanism. Among these movements, Jainism and Buddhism emerged as the most influential and well-organized religions. These new religious ideas developed in response to the prevailing social, economic, and religious conditions in the middle Gangetic plains, where opposition to the ritualistic practices and dominance of the Brahmanas became widespread. The sramanas (wandering ascetics) propagated these heterodox beliefs, renouncing their household lives and spreading their philosophies through ceaseless movement.

2. Causes for the Rise of Jainism and Buddhism

2.1. Social Conditions: The Reaction Against the Varna System

During the post-Vedic period, society was rigidly divided into four varnas: Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras. The Brahmanas claimed the highest status, enjoying privileges such as exemption from taxes and punishment. The Shudras were relegated to servitude, barred from Vedic studies, and treated as untouchables in some cases. This varna system created social tensions, particularly among the Kshatriyas and Vaishyas, who sought to challenge the authority of the Brahmanas. Vardhamana Mahavira (Jainism) and Gautama Buddha (Buddhism) were both born into the Kshatriya class, and their teachings were a direct challenge to the ritualistic dominance of the Brahmanas.

2.2. Economic Conditions: The Impact of New Agricultural Practices

The rise of agriculture in north-eastern India, particularly in the middle Gangetic plains, played a significant role in the growth of Jainism and Buddhism. The use of iron tools allowed for large-scale forest clearance and the establishment of permanent settlements. However, the Vedic tradition of animal sacrifices, which included the killing of cattle, posed a threat to the newly emerging agrarian economy, where cattle were essential for plowing. The non-violence (Ahimsa) teachings of Jainism and Buddhism resonated with these agricultural communities, who depended on cattle for their livelihoods. As urban centers expanded and trade flourished, the merchant class (Vaishyas) also gravitated towards these new religions, which promoted ethical trade and peaceful coexistence.

2.3. Religious Conditions: Opposition to Vedic Rituals

The elaborate and costly Vedic rituals had become increasingly irrelevant to many sections of society. These rituals were primarily controlled by the Brahmanas, who reinforced their dominance through their monopoly over religious practices. Jainism and Buddhism, with their emphasis on personal conduct and spiritual enlightenment, offered a more accessible and ethical alternative. By rejecting the Vedic rituals and focusing on non-violence, truth, and renunciation, both religions gained widespread appeal among the masses.

2.4. Political Conditions: The Rise of Kingdoms and New Philosophies

As new kingdoms emerged in north-eastern India, political power shifted towards the Kshatriya rulers, who often resisted the Brahmanical influence. Constant warfare between these kingdoms created a need for religious teachings that promoted peace and non-violence. Buddhism and Jainism addressed these concerns by advocating for peaceful governance and ethical rule, making them popular among rulers and merchants alike.

3. Jainism: Teachings and Expansion

3.1. Vardhamana Mahavira: Life and Teachings

Vardhamana Mahavira, the 24th and last Tirthankara of Jainism, was born in 540 B.C. in Vaishali, Bihar. At the age of 30, he renounced his worldly life to seek spiritual enlightenment. After 12 years of rigorous asceticism, he attained Kaivalya (supreme knowledge) and became a Jina (conqueror). His teachings centered on the Panchamahavrata (Five Great Vows):

• Ahimsa (non-violence)
• Satya (truthfulness)
• Asteya (non-stealing)
• Brahmacharya (celibacy)
• Aparigraha (non-possessiveness)

These vows formed the foundation of Jain ethics, guiding followers toward spiritual liberation by renouncing material and worldly attachments.

3.2. Triratna and Panchamahavrata

Jainism is based on the Triratna (Three Jewels), which are essential for attaining Moksha (liberation from the cycle of birth and death):

1. Right Faith (Samyak Darshana)
2. Right Knowledge (Samyak Jnana)
3. Right Conduct (Samyak Charitra)

Following the Panchamahavrata ensures the ethical and moral conduct required to purify the soul and achieve liberation.

3.3. Schism in Jainism: The Digambara and Svetambara Sects

After Mahavira’s death, Jainism divided into two major sects—Digambaras (sky-clad or naked monks) and Svetambaras (white-clad monks). The Digambaras practiced extreme asceticism, including the renunciation of clothing, while the Svetambaras wore white robes. This schism arose from differing interpretations of Mahavira’s teachings on asceticism and renunciation.

4. Buddhism: Teachings and Expansion

4.1. Gautama Buddha: Life and Enlightenment

Siddhartha Gautama, born in 563 B.C. in Lumbini (modern-day Nepal), renounced his princely life to seek an end to human suffering. After years of meditation and asceticism, he attained Enlightenment under the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya and became Gautama Buddha. His teachings focused on the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path as a means to end suffering and attain Nirvana (liberation).

4.2. The Four Noble Truths and Eightfold Path

Buddha’s teachings revolved around the Four Noble Truths:

1. Dukkha: Life is full of suffering.
2. Samudaya: The cause of suffering is desire.
3. Nirodha: The cessation of suffering is possible by eliminating desire.
4. Magga: The path to the cessation of suffering is the Eightfold Path.

The Eightfold Path includes:

• Right Understanding
• Right Intention
• Right Speech
• Right Action
• Right Livelihood
• Right Effort
• Right Mindfulness
• Right Concentration

This path provides a comprehensive guide for ethical living, mental discipline, and wisdom.

5. Spread and Influence of Jainism and Buddhism

5.1. Spread of Jainism

Jainism spread primarily in western and southern India, where it gained the patronage of various dynasties. Mahavira’s teachings were initially confined to the regions of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, but over time, they spread to Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Karnataka. Jainism’s influence remained largely limited compared to Buddhism, but it established a significant following among traders and merchants.

5.2. Spread of Buddhism

Buddhism spread rapidly across India and beyond, thanks to the patronage of rulers such as Emperor Ashoka, who played a crucial role in its expansion. Ashoka’s support for Buddhism led to its spread across Asia, including regions such as Sri Lanka, China, and Southeast Asia. Buddhist teachings on peace and non-violence resonated with rulers and common people alike, leading to its widespread adoption.

6. Legacy of Jainism and Buddhism

Both Jainism and Buddhism have left an indelible mark on Indian society, culture, and philosophy. Their emphasis on non-violence, ethical living, and spiritual liberation has influenced Indian thought for centuries. While Buddhism eventually declined in India, it flourished in other parts of Asia. Jainism, though smaller in numbers, continues to thrive in India, particularly in Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Karnataka. Their teachings continue to inspire individuals seeking a path of peace, ethical living, and spiritual freedom.

7. Contribution of Jainism to Indian Culture and Society

7.1. Growth of Language and Literature

Jainism played a significant role in the development of Indian languages and literature. Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara, preached in Ardhamagadhi, the common language of the people at the time. This language later contributed to the evolution of Prakrit, which became the medium of communication for early Jaina canonical texts. The Jaina Canonical Texts were later compiled in the 6th century A.D. in Gujarat, at a significant center of learning called Valabhi.

Additionally, the Jaina contribution to Apabhramsha literature was notable, particularly the creation of its first grammar. Jain scholars also produced influential works in Sanskrit and regional languages like Kannada, further enriching India’s literary heritage. The famous works include the Anga, Upanga, Kalpasutra, Acharangasutra, and the Uttaradhyayanasutra. Jainism’s literary contributions greatly influenced regional dialects and helped shape languages like Marathi.

7.2. Jainism’s Principle of Non-Violence (Ahimsa)

The principle of Ahimsa or non-violence is central to Jainism and has been one of its most enduring contributions to Indian society. Jainism preached kindness towards all living beings and advocated for the cessation of all forms of violence, including killing animals for sacrifices. This principle also influenced Mahatma Gandhi, whose philosophy of non-violent resistance (Satyagraha) played a pivotal role in India’s freedom movement.

Ahimsa has also contributed to the widespread practice of vegetarianism in India, particularly in regions with a strong Jain influence, such as Gujarat and Rajasthan. The emphasis on protecting all forms of life, even insects and plants, made Jainism a unique religious tradition that has been integrated into Indian social and cultural practices.

7.3. Influence on Indian Politics

Throughout history, Jainism has influenced the political landscape of India. Several rulers, such as Chandragupta Maurya, who is believed to have embraced Jainism in his later years, were influenced by its principles. Under the guidance of the Jain monk Bhadrabahu, Chandragupta Maurya adopted Jainism and eventually abdicated his throne, spending his final years as a Jain ascetic in Karnataka. Similarly, King Kharavela of Kalinga was another notable ruler who followed Jainism and supported its spread in eastern India.

The influence of Jainism on politics was evident in the ethical governance promoted by Jain rulers, who often adopted non-violence in their administrative policies. This helped create a more humane and tolerant political atmosphere in regions influenced by Jainism.

7.4. Growth of the Trading Community

Jainism was primarily supported by the Vaishya or merchant class, which played a significant role in its spread. As the religion promoted ethical trade practices and non-violence, it became popular among the trading communities. This fostered a strong sense of brotherhood and unity among merchants, leading to the formation of guilds or associations that regulated trade practices and promoted social welfare.

These trading communities, enriched by their commercial success, built temples and promoted education. Their contributions to society helped create a stable social and economic structure in regions where Jainism flourished. This also led to the rise of the Jain banking system and further stimulated economic growth in ancient and medieval India.

7.5. Contribution to Art, Architecture, and Charitable Institutions

Jainism contributed significantly to the development of Indian art and architecture. The construction of Jain temples, known for their intricate carvings and detailed craftsmanship, is a testament to the religion’s aesthetic values. The Dilwara Temples at Mount Abu and the Ranakpur Jain Temple in Rajasthan are prime examples of Jain architecture, which exhibit exquisite craftsmanship in marble and stone.

Jain sculptures, particularly the images of Tirthankaras, were designed according to strict rules and depicted with minimal ornamentation to maintain a spiritual simplicity. The towering statue of Bahubali (Gomateswara) at Shravana Belgola in Karnataka is one of the most iconic Jain sculptures, symbolizing the Jain values of renunciation and spirituality.

In addition to architecture, Jainism contributed to the creation of charitable institutions. Jain merchants and rulers built rest houses (dharmashalas), hospitals for animals, and other charitable establishments, promoting welfare and service to all living beings.

8. Causes for the Decline of Jainism in India

8.1. Lack of Continued Royal Patronage

Although Jainism enjoyed the support of several rulers, such as Bimbisara, Ajatashatru, and Kharavela, it did not receive sustained royal patronage like Buddhism did under Emperor Ashoka. With the rise of powerful rulers who favored Buddhism and Hinduism, Jainism gradually lost political support. Rulers such as Ashoka and later kings like Kanishka and Harsha prioritized Buddhism, leading to its expansion at the expense of Jainism.

8.2. Severity of Jain Practices

The extreme austerity and asceticism promoted by Jainism were difficult for many to follow. Jain monks practiced Sallekhana, a form of fasting unto death, and followed strict rules of renunciation that demanded a high level of discipline. These severe practices, including the requirement for Digambara monks to go naked, were alienating for the broader populace, who found it difficult to adopt such stringent practices in everyday life.

8.3. Factionalism and Schism within Jainism

The division of Jainism into Digambara and Svetambara sects weakened its unity. These internal divisions caused factionalism and diluted the influence of Jainism. The Digambaras adhered to a more extreme form of asceticism, while the Svetambaras allowed for more flexibility. This split led to a decrease in missionary zeal and hindered the unified spread of the religion.

8.4. Competition with Buddhism and Hinduism

The rise of Buddhism, which offered a simpler and more accessible path to spiritual liberation, presented stiff competition to Jainism. The teachings of Gautama Buddha resonated with a broader audience, particularly because of its Middle Path, which avoided extreme asceticism. As a result, Buddhism gained more followers, especially among the Kshatriyas and Vaishyas.

At the same time, the resurgence of Hinduism, particularly the rise of Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism, also contributed to the decline of Jainism. Hindu reformers like Shankaracharya and Ramanuja reinvigorated Hindu thought, making it more appealing to the masses. This led to a gradual decline in the influence of Jainism, especially in northern India.

8.5. Unintelligible Philosophy

One of the reasons for the decline of Jainism was that its philosophical ideas were often difficult for the masses to grasp. Concepts such as Jiva, Ajiva, Syadvada (the theory of relativity of truth), and Anekantavada (the doctrine of non-absolutism) were complex and did not appeal to the common people. Many found it difficult to understand the idea that even non-living things, such as water and stones, possessed a soul. This made Jainism less accessible compared to Buddhism and Hinduism, which offered simpler explanations of spiritual concepts.

8.6. Spread of Buddhism

Buddhism posed significant competition to Jainism, particularly because Buddha’s teachings were seen as more moderate and attainable. Buddhism offered a Middle Path that avoided extreme asceticism, which attracted a larger following, including the masses. Furthermore, Buddhism’s missionary zeal, supported by rulers such as Ashoka, spread across Asia, while Jainism remained confined largely to certain regions in India.

8.7. Hindu Revival and Role of Hindu Preachers

The revival of Hinduism, led by reformers such as Shankaracharya, Ramanuja, and Nimbarka, further contributed to the decline of Jainism. These reformers reinvigorated Hinduism by simplifying its rituals and focusing on devotion and personal piety, making it more accessible to the common people. Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Shaktism gained prominence, and the renewed emphasis on Bhakti (devotion) movements made Hinduism more appealing.

The role of Hindu preachers in promoting their faith further reduced the influence of Jainism. As a result, Jainism gradually lost ground to the rising tide of Hindu religious reforms and movements.

9. Spread of Jainism: Key Centers and Regions

9.1. Jainism in South India

Jainism had a significant presence in southern India, particularly in Karnataka. The spread of Jainism in this region is attributed to Bhadrabahu, who, during a great famine in Magadha, led a migration of Jain monks and followers to the southern parts of India. The Jain presence in Karnataka was further strengthened by royal patronage from various dynasties, such as the Gangas, Kadambas, and Chalukyas.

In Karnataka, Jainism flourished, and many basadis (Jain temples) were built. One of the most notable contributions of Jainism to this region is the gigantic statue of Bahubali at Shravana Belgola, which remains an important pilgrimage site for Jains. Other significant Jain centers include Karkala and Moodabidri, where Jain art and culture thrived.

9.2. Jainism in Gujarat and Rajasthan

Gujarat and Rajasthan became strongholds of Jainism during the medieval period. In Gujarat, the Jain community was instrumental in the growth of trade and commerce, with Jain merchants playing a key role in economic activities. Jain temples, such as the Dilwara Temples at Mount Abu and the Palitana Temples in Gujarat, stand as architectural marvels that continue to attract pilgrims and tourists.

Jain literature also flourished in these regions, particularly in the form of Prakrit texts and Apabhramsha literature. The Jain influence on art, architecture, and culture in Gujarat and Rajasthan is profound, and Jainism remains a significant religious presence in these states.

9.3. Jainism in Eastern India

Jainism’s spread to eastern India, particularly in Bihar and Orissa, is closely linked to its early growth in Magadha. The ancient city of Pava, where Mahavira attained nirvana, remains an important pilgrimage site for Jains. Jainism also enjoyed patronage under the Kalinga king Kharavela, who is known for his support of Jain monks and for promoting Jainism in the region.

Though Buddhism gained prominence in eastern India under rulers like Ashoka, Jainism maintained a foothold through its religious institutions and monastic traditions. The Udayagiri and Khandagiri caves in Orissa, adorned with Jain art and inscriptions, testify to the historical presence of Jainism in this region.

10. Schisms and Sects within Jainism

10.1. Digambara and Svetambara Divide

The most significant schism in Jainism occurred around 200 years after the death of Mahavira, during a time of great famine in Magadha. As Jain monks migrated to the south under the leadership of Bhadrabahu, those who stayed back in Magadha under Sthulabhadra made certain concessions regarding monastic discipline, including the wearing of clothes.

This led to the division of Jainism into two major sects: the Digambaras (those who go naked) and the Svetambaras (those who wear white robes). The Digambaras, predominantly in the south, adhered to more austere practices, while the Svetambaras, based in the north, adopted relatively lenient customs.

10.2. Differences in Doctrine and Practices

The Digambaras believe that a true monk should renounce all material possessions, including clothing, as this reflects complete detachment from the world. They also hold that women cannot attain moksha (liberation) without first being reborn as men. The Svetambaras, on the other hand, allow their monks to wear white robes and believe that women can achieve liberation in their current form.

These doctrinal differences extended to the interpretation of Jain texts and practices, leading to further divisions within the Jain community. Over time, both sects developed their own monastic orders, religious texts, and ritual practices.

10.3. Other Sectarian Divisions

Apart from the major Digambara and Svetambara sects, Jainism also saw the rise of other sub-sects. The Terapanthis and Samaiyas emerged as reform movements within the Svetambara tradition, rejecting idol worship and focusing on the scriptures. These sects sought to return to the original teachings of Mahavira and simplified the religious practices for the laity.

11. Jain Councils and Preservation of Texts

11.1. First Jain Council at Pataliputra

The first Jain council was held at Pataliputra in the early 3rd century BCE under the leadership of Sthulabhadra. This council was convened to preserve and compile the Jain scriptures, particularly in light of the loss of earlier texts during the migration to the south. The 12 Angas (sections) were compiled at this council, forming the core of the Svetambara canon.

11.2. Second Jain Council at Valabhi

The second Jain council was held in the 5th century CE at Valabhi in Gujarat under the leadership of Devardhi Kshamasramana. At this council, the 12 Angas and 12 Upangas (subsidiary texts) were compiled and formally codified. This compilation became the authoritative scripture for the Svetambara sect.

In contrast, the Digambaras believe that the original scriptures were lost during the famine and migration to the south. As a result, they rely on later texts, such as the Satkhandagama and the Kasayapahuda, which were composed in the early centuries CE.

12. Contributions of Jainism to Indian Society and Culture

12.1. Language and Literature

Jainism made significant contributions to the development of Indian languages and literature, particularly through the promotion of Prakrit. Mahavira preached in Ardha-Magadhi, a dialect of Prakrit that was accessible to the common people. This helped bridge the gap between the religious elite and ordinary people, allowing Jain teachings to spread more widely.

Jain literature flourished in Prakrit, Apabhramsha, and later Sanskrit. Many important Jain texts, including the Angas, Upangas, and Churnis, were composed in these languages. Jain scholars also played a critical role in developing Sanskrit grammar and promoting regional languages, such as Kannada, Gujarati, and Marathi. The adoption of these languages for religious and secular writing contributed to the cultural and intellectual growth of India during the early medieval period.

Jain literature, especially in Apabhramsha, contains epics, puranas, novels, and drama. Jain monks and scholars produced extensive commentaries on their canonical texts, often written in Sanskrit, contributing to both religious and secular learning in India.

12.2. Promotion of Non-Violence (Ahimsa)

Perhaps the most enduring contribution of Jainism to Indian culture is the principle of Ahimsa, or non-violence. Jainism’s strict adherence to non-violence extended to all living beings, both human and non-human. This philosophy influenced Indian rulers, notably Chandragupta Maurya, and later, Emperor Ashoka, who adopted non-violence as a state policy after embracing Buddhism.

Ahimsa became a fundamental value not just in Jainism but also in Indian society at large, influencing the political and social thought of figures like Mahatma Gandhi. Jain teachings of non-violence laid the foundation for a culture of peace, tolerance, and respect for all forms of life, which continues to influence modern India.

12.3. Influence on Indian Politics

Jainism had a profound influence on the political life of ancient and medieval India. Jain kings and ministers, such as Chandragupta Maurya and the Chalukyas of Gujarat, adopted Jain principles of governance, promoting justice, peace, and non-violence. Jainism’s emphasis on ethical leadership helped foster a political environment where rulers were expected to uphold dharma (righteousness) and protect their subjects without resorting to unnecessary violence.

In medieval Karnataka, Jainism played a pivotal role in shaping the region’s political landscape. Jain monks, such as Bhadrabahu and later Jinasena, served as spiritual advisors to kings, and their guidance helped maintain stable and prosperous kingdoms. The influence of Jainism on political life extended beyond governance, shaping the moral fabric of Indian society.

12.4. Impact on Trade and Commerce

Jainism contributed significantly to the growth of trade and commerce in ancient India. Jain communities were actively involved in commercial activities, and many merchants and traders embraced Jainism due to its ethical teachings, particularly the emphasis on non-violence and honesty in business practices. Jain merchants, known for their integrity, gained considerable wealth and prominence in Indian society, particularly in regions like Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Karnataka.

The growth of guilds and trade networks in these regions was often facilitated by Jain merchants, who played a key role in fostering economic growth and stability. Their wealth was often used to patronize Jain art, architecture, and charitable institutions, further contributing to the socio-economic development of India.

12.5. Jain Architecture and Sculpture

Jainism made remarkable contributions to Indian architecture and sculpture. Jain temples, known for their intricate carvings and architectural splendor, are found across India, particularly in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Karnataka, and Maharashtra. The most famous Jain architectural marvels include the Dilwara Temples on Mount Abu, Ranakpur Jain Temple, and the Bahubali Statue at Shravana Belgola.

Jain sculptures, particularly images of Tirthankaras, are known for their unique style and grace. Jain art is distinguished by its adherence to strict iconographic conventions, which limited the creative expression of individual artists but resulted in a highly distinctive style. The Jain tradition of building cave temples, such as those at Ellora, Udaigiri, and Khandagiri, showcases the technical and artistic skills of Jain artisans.

These architectural and artistic contributions reflect the spiritual and cultural values of Jainism, particularly the emphasis on simplicity, purity, and non-attachment.

12.6. Growth of Charitable Institutions

Jainism played a significant role in the development of charitable institutions in India. Jain communities were known for their dedication to philanthropy, often establishing hospitals, schools, libraries, and feeding centers (known as anna chatras) for the poor and needy. Jain temples and monasteries also served as centers of learning and social welfare.

Jainism’s emphasis on compassion and charity extended to both humans and animals. Many Jain communities established animal shelters (known as Panjarapoles) to care for sick and injured animals, reflecting the Jain principle of Ahimsa.

12.7 Jain Painting Tradition

Along with its contributions to architecture and sculpture, Jainism also played a major role in the development of Indian painting traditions. The tradition of Jain miniature painting is especially significant, with some of the oldest surviving manuscripts adorned with delicate and colorful illustrations. The most renowned examples of Jain art come from the Western Indian Style of painting, also known as the Jain Style, which flourished in the 11th century onwards.

These miniatures, often found in manuscripts like Kalpasutra and Kalakacharya Katha, are characterized by their use of vivid colors, detailed depictions, and intricate designs. The paintings typically narrate the lives of the Tirthankaras and other important Jain figures, reflecting the religion’s strong emphasis on visual representation as a form of devotion.

The use of palm leaves, and later paper, provided a medium for artistic expression, contributing to the preservation and dissemination of Jain religious texts and stories. The Jain art of manuscript painting continued to evolve over centuries, influencing the broader traditions of Indian painting, especially in Rajasthan and Gujarat.

12.8 Jainism’s Influence on Social Reforms

Jainism’s ethical and philosophical teachings contributed to important social reforms in ancient and medieval India. One of the key aspects of Jainism is its rejection of the caste system as an absolute determinant of an individual’s worth or spiritual potential. Jainism advocated for equality among all people, irrespective of caste or social status, providing an alternative to the rigid social hierarchies of Brahmanical society.

Moreover, Jain teachings on non-possession (Aparigraha) and non-violence had broader implications for social behavior, encouraging a culture of charity, simple living, and ethical wealth accumulation. These ideas helped to shape merchant communities in India, fostering a spirit of cooperation, ethical trade practices, and a sense of social responsibility among the wealthy.

12.9 Role of Women in Jainism

Jainism made notable contributions to women’s religious life by offering women opportunities for spiritual advancement. Jain texts, like the Kalpa Sutra, reveal that women could attain monastic status as nuns (sadhvis) and had a place within the Jain religious community. The Jain monastic order for women became a prominent feature of Jainism, with thousands of nuns actively participating in religious and social life.

However, despite the opportunities for women in Jainism, there were also debates regarding the spiritual potential of women, particularly in relation to their ability to achieve moksha (liberation). The Shvetambara sect of Jainism recognizes the possibility of women attaining liberation in their current life, while the Digambara sect holds that a woman must be reborn as a man to achieve moksha. These differing views on the spiritual capabilities of women highlight the diversity of thought within Jainism on gender and salvation.

The nuns’ monastic life also allowed women to become educators and spiritual leaders, contributing to the spread of Jain teachings, particularly among other women. This role gave women a significant place in the religious and social structure of Jainism, something that was relatively rare in other contemporary religious traditions.

12.10 Schisms in Jainism: Digambaras and Shvetambaras

One of the most defining moments in Jain history was the division between the Digambara and Shvetambara sects. The schism arose over differences in religious practices, particularly regarding monastic discipline and the wearing of clothes by monks. The Digambaras, following a more austere path, believed that monks should renounce all material possessions, including clothes, whereas the Shvetambaras allowed monks to wear white robes.

This division not only influenced religious practices but also impacted Jain community life, with the two sects developing distinct rituals, literature, and artistic traditions. The Digambaras, concentrated mainly in southern India, and the Shvetambaras, predominantly in western India, have both contributed richly to the Jain cultural heritage while maintaining their unique identities.

Despite these differences, both sects uphold the core Jain doctrines of Ahimsa, non-possession, and the pursuit of moksha. The division, while significant, did not weaken the overall influence of Jainism, as both sects continue to thrive and maintain a strong following in various regions of India.

12.11 Jainism and Environmental Ethics

In modern times, Jainism’s principles of Ahimsa and Aparigraha have been reinterpreted in the context of environmental ethics. Jainism’s deep reverence for all forms of life aligns closely with contemporary environmental concerns about sustainability, animal rights, and ecological balance.

Jainism’s teachings emphasize a minimalist lifestyle, advocating for the conservation of natural resources and the avoidance of harm to any living beings. These values resonate with modern efforts to promote sustainable living and environmental responsibility, making Jainism particularly relevant in today’s global discussions on climate change and environmental degradation.

Many Jain communities have taken active roles in environmental conservation, including initiatives to promote vegetarianism, plant-based diets, and the protection of wildlife. Jainism’s environmental ethic, rooted in ancient teachings, continues to offer a profound philosophical framework for addressing the ecological challenges of the 21st century.

12.12 Jain Festivals and Cultural Practices

Jain festivals reflect the core religious beliefs and practices of the faith, particularly the emphasis on self-purification and spiritual progress. Key festivals like Paryushana and Mahavir Jayanti are significant not only for their religious observances but also for their role in community bonding and spiritual renewal.

• Paryushana: This is the most important festival in Jainism, focusing on self-discipline, fasting, and meditation. The festival is marked by introspection, forgiveness, and a commitment to living according to Jain ethical principles. At the end of Paryushana, Jains seek forgiveness from others for any harm they may have caused, symbolizing the importance of Ahimsa in daily life.
• Mahavir Jayanti: This festival celebrates the birth of Vardhamana Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara, and is observed with great devotion. Devotees participate in processions, lectures, and rituals, reflecting on Mahavira’s teachings of non-violence, truth, and spiritual liberation.

These festivals not only serve as religious observances but also reinforce Jainism’s ethical and moral framework, encouraging individuals to pursue lives of non-violence, compassion, and self-restraint.

12.13 Decline of Jainism in India

Despite its significant contributions to Indian society, art, and philosophy, Jainism saw a decline in its influence, particularly when compared to other religious movements like Buddhism and Hinduism. The reasons for the decline of Jainism are multifaceted and include both internal and external factors.

1. Lack of Royal Patronage: While early kings like Bimbisara and Ajatashatru supported Jainism, later rulers shifted their patronage to other religions, especially Buddhism and forms of Hinduism. Jainism did not receive the same level of state-sponsored promotion, which limited its expansion.
2. Internal Divisions: The schism between the Digambaras and Shvetambaras, coupled with further divisions within each sect, weakened the unity of the Jain community. These sectarian differences often led to disputes, hindering the unified propagation of Jain teachings.
3. Strict Ascetic Practices: The austerity of Jain practices, especially among the Digambara monks, made the religion difficult for the general population to follow. Practices like extreme fasting, renunciation of all possessions, and self-mortification were not accessible to the average householder, which limited Jainism’s appeal compared to more moderate religions like Buddhism.
4. Rise of Buddhism and Hinduism: Jainism faced stiff competition from Buddhism, which, under the patronage of rulers like Ashoka, became widely popular. Buddhism offered a more accessible path to salvation for laypeople, without the extreme asceticism demanded by Jainism. Additionally, the revival of Hinduism under philosophers like Shankaracharya further marginalized Jainism.
5. Philosophical Complexity: The intricate philosophical doctrines of Jainism, such as Syadavada (the theory of conditioned predication) and Anekantavada (the theory of manifold viewpoints), were difficult for the masses to understand. This philosophical complexity made it harder for Jainism to spread among the general population, in contrast to the simpler teachings of other religions.
6. Factionalism: The division between the Digambaras and Shvetambaras over issues such as monastic discipline and clothing led to internal conflicts within the Jain community. This factionalism weakened the religion’s influence and hindered its growth.

12.14 Jainism’s Modern Influence and Revival

Despite its decline in ancient times, Jainism continues to be a significant religious and cultural force in modern India, especially in states like Rajasthan, Gujarat, Karnataka, and Maharashtra. The modern revival of Jainism is rooted in its ethical teachings, which have found resonance in contemporary social movements.

1. Environmentalism and Non-Violence: Jainism’s principles of Ahimsa (non-violence) and Aparigraha (non-possessiveness) have been embraced by modern environmental movements and animal rights activists. The Jain vegetarian ethic is now recognized globally, and many Jains actively promote sustainable living, emphasizing the need to protect all forms of life.
2. Philanthropy and Business: Jain communities, especially in Western India, have traditionally been involved in trade and commerce. Many Jain business leaders have used their wealth to establish charitable institutions, hospitals, educational centers, and animal welfare shelters (Panjarapoles). Jainism’s emphasis on ethical wealth accumulation continues to guide Jain entrepreneurs in their business practices.
3. Jainism and Global Influence: Jainism’s message of non-violence has had a significant impact on global figures like Mahatma Gandhi, who was greatly influenced by Jain teachings. Gandhi’s advocacy of Ahimsa as a principle for political resistance during India’s independence movement owes much to Jainism. In the modern world, Jain diaspora communities have established temples and cultural centers in countries like the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, and Australia, helping to spread Jain values globally.
4. Jain Literature and Scholarship: Modern scholars continue to study Jainism’s rich literary heritage, including its canonical texts, commentaries, and philosophical treatises. Jain literature is now widely available in translation, contributing to a renewed interest in Jain philosophy and ethics.
5. Jainism in Popular Culture: Jainism has also made its way into popular media, with films, documentaries, and books showcasing the religion’s history, teachings, and contributions to Indian culture. Festivals like Paryushana and Mahavir Jayanti are celebrated not just by Jains but are acknowledged more broadly as part of India’s cultural diversity.

12.15 Jainism’s Contribution to Indian Culture and Philosophy

Jainism has left an indelible mark on Indian culture, art, and philosophy, contributing to the development of architecture, literature, and moral thought in profound ways.

1. Art and Architecture: Jainism’s emphasis on non-violence and asceticism inspired a rich tradition of temple architecture and sculpture. Notable examples include the Dilwara Temples in Mount Abu, the Ranakpur Jain Temple, and the giant Bahubali statue at Shravanabelagola. These monuments stand as testaments to Jainism’s influence on Indian aesthetic traditions.
2. Philosophy: Jainism’s philosophical contributions, particularly the doctrines of Anekantavada (non-absolutism) and Syadavada (relativity of viewpoints), have significantly influenced Indian philosophical discourse. These ideas have encouraged a culture of tolerance, pluralism, and open-mindedness that is integral to India’s diverse spiritual heritage.
3. Ethics and Morality: Jainism’s rigorous ethical system, centered on Ahimsa, truthfulness, non-stealing, celibacy, and non-attachment, has shaped Indian moral thought. These values, which promote compassion, honesty, and self-discipline, continue to influence ethical practices in India and beyond.
4. Literature and Language: Jain contributions to Indian literature are significant, particularly in the development of Prakrit and Kannada. Jain monks and scholars composed a vast body of literature, including epics, poetry, and philosophical works, that played a key role in the cultural and intellectual history of India.

Read More:

Vedic Age in India

Prelims MCQ

1. Which of the following statements is/are correct about the Jain doctrine of Anekantavada?

1. It refers to the theory of multiple perspectives and believes that reality is complex.
2. Anekantavada suggests that absolute truth can be fully understood by a single human being.
3. This doctrine led to the development of the Syadvada or the doctrine of conditional prediction in Jainism.

• (A) 1 and 2 only
• (B) 2 and 3 only
• (C) 1 and 3 only
• (D) 1, 2, and 3

Answer: (C) 1 and 3 only

---

2. With reference to the causes for the rise of heterodox sects, which of the following statements is correct?

1. The growth of cities and trade in the Middle Gangetic plains had no influence on the rise of Jainism and Buddhism.
2. The decline in the significance of Vedic sacrifices contributed to the spread of new religious ideologies.
3. The influence of Kshatriyas, who opposed Brahminical orthodoxy, played a role in the emergence of Jainism and Buddhism.

• (A) Only 1
• (B) Only 2 and 3
• (C) Only 3
• (D) 1, 2, and 3

Answer: (B) Only 2 and 3

---

3. Which of the following pairs is correctly matched regarding the schisms in Jainism?

1. Svetambara: Monks are required to wear white robes.
2. Digambara: Monks are allowed to carry utensils and possessions.
3. Svetambara: Women can attain moksha.

• (A) 1 and 2 only
• (B) 2 and 3 only
• (C) 1 and 3 only
• (D) 1, 2, and 3

Answer: (C) 1 and 3 only

---

4. Consider the following statements regarding Mahavira and Buddha:

1. Both Mahavira and Buddha belonged to the Kshatriya clan.
2. While Mahavira accepted the authority of the Vedas, Buddha rejected them.
3. Both emphasized the doctrine of Ahimsa or non-violence in their teachings.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

• (A) 1 and 3 only
• (B) 2 and 3 only
• (C) 1 and 2 only
• (D) 1, 2, and 3

Answer: (A) 1 and 3 only

---

5. Regarding the spread of Jainism and its influence on language, which of the following statements is incorrect?

1. Jain texts were primarily composed in Sanskrit to appeal to the educated elite.
2. Prakrit was the primary language used for Jain religious texts, facilitating their spread among common people.
3. The compilation of Jain canonical texts took place at the council in Valabhi, Gujarat.

• (A) Only 1
• (B) Only 2
• (C) Only 3
• (D) 1 and 3 only

Answer: (A) Only 1

Mains Questions on Jainism and Buddhism

1. Examine the socio-economic factors that contributed to the rise of Jainism and Buddhism in the 6th century BCE. How did these religions respond to the social conditions of the time?
2. Critically analyze the role of Jainism in promoting non-violence and its impact on social and political life in ancient India. How did this philosophy influence the economic activities of the time?
3. Compare and contrast the teachings of Mahavira and Buddha with regard to their views on social hierarchies and the concept of salvation. In what ways did they challenge the Brahmanical order?
4. Discuss the reasons for the decline of Jainism and Buddhism in India despite their early widespread appeal and royal patronage. Highlight the role of internal divisions and external pressures in their decline.
5. Evaluate the contribution of Jainism to Indian art, architecture, and literature. How did the religion’s focus on non-violence and asceticism shape these cultural expressions?