Harappan Civilization : Date, Extent, and Characteristics

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The Harappan Civilization is named after Harappa, the first site discovered that revealed the existence of this ancient culture. Initially referred to as the Indus Valley Civilization due to the discovery of most settlements in the Indus River plains, scholars prefer the term Harappan Civilization following the convention of naming ancient cultures after the first significant archaeological site uncovered.

The Harappan Civilization extended beyond the Indus Valley, covering a vast area, including:

• Afghanistan
• Pakistan (Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan, North-West Frontier Province)
• India (Jammu, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Western Uttar Pradesh)

Some notable boundary sites:

• West: Sutkagen-dor on the Makran coast (Pakistan)
• East: Alamgirpur in Uttar Pradesh (India)
• North: Shortughai in Afghanistan

Given this widespread reach, the term “Indus Valley” is somewhat limiting. Some scholars prefer “Indus–Sarasvati Civilization” due to many sites found along the Ghaggar-Hakra river, identified with the Rig Vedic Sarasvati river. However, Harappan Civilization remains the most widely accepted term.

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The Harappan Civilization evolved through three distinct phases, each marking a stage in cultural and urban development:

Period	Timeframe	Characteristics
Neolithic	5500 BCE – 3200 BCE	Early settlements at Mehrgarh and Kili Ghul Muhammad in Baluchistan and Indus plains. Pastoralism, limited cultivation, permanent villages, and early knowledge of wheat, barley, dates, cotton, and domesticated animals such as sheep, goat, and cattle.
Early Harappan	3200 BCE – 2600 BCE	Proto-urban phase. Use of copper, wheel, plough. Domestication of crops such as peas, sesame, cotton, and animals like water buffalo. Uniformities in pottery traditions begin to emerge. Trade networks developed with sources of raw materials (e.g., lapis lazuli). Key sites: Rehman Dheri, Amri, Kot Diji, Kalibangan.
Mature Harappan	2600 BCE – 1900 BCE	The peak urban phase. Cities like Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Dholavira, and Kalibangan flourish with advanced town planning, uniform bricks, weights, and seals. Long-distance trade established with Mesopotamia.
Late Harappan	1900 BCE – 1300 BCE	Decline of urban centers. Many cities were abandoned, though some continued regional traditions. The writing system declined, but pottery and crafts persisted. The village cultures in the Sutlej-Jamuna divide, Punjab, and Gujarat continued to practice Harappan traditions.

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1.3.1 Key Geographical Regions

• Lower Indus Basin: Mohenjodaro dominated this agriculturally rich area of Sind, with lakes like Manchhar supporting fishing settlements.
• Upper Sind and Balochistan: Known for flint quarries and Harappan settlements with key trade routes linking to Baluchistan.
• Punjab (Pakistan and India): Home to Harappa and other significant sites in doabs (land between two rivers).
• Cholistan Desert: The Hakra River once flowed through this region, supporting the largest cluster of Harappan settlements, many with industrial activity.
• Ghaggar-Hakra Beds: Sites like Rakhigarhi (Haryana), Kalibangan, and Banawali are located along this river system.
• Rann of Kutch, Gulf of Cambay, and Kathiawad (Saurashtra): Dholavira and Lothal were important coastal settlements facilitating maritime trade.

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1.4 Characteristics of the Harappan Civilization

1.4.1 Town Planning and Architecture

Harappan cities exhibited advanced town planning, featuring:

• Grid Pattern Layout: Cities were divided into two sections, the Citadel and the Lower Town. The citadel housed administrative and religious buildings, while the lower town contained residential and commercial areas.
• Brick Construction: Uniform baked bricks were used for buildings. Dholavira is known for its stone constructions.
• Drainage System: An impressive system of covered drains and soak pits managed wastewater effectively, reflecting an advanced understanding of urban sanitation.

Great Bath of Mohenjodaro: A large public bathing structure, possibly used for ritual purposes.

1.4.2 Subsistence Patterns

1.4.2.1 Agriculture

Agriculture was the backbone of the Harappan economy, with key crops including:

• Wheat, Barley, Rice, and Millets: These formed the staple diet across different regions.
• Cotton: Evidence of cotton cultivation has been found at Mohenjodaro.
• Seasonal Crops: The Harappans grew kharif (summer) and rabi (winter) crops, similar to modern-day agricultural practices.

1.4.2.2 Animal Husbandry

Domesticated animals like cattle, buffalo, sheep, and goats provided meat, milk, and labor. Hunting supplemented the diet with wild animals such as deer, boar, and fish.

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Harappans engaged in long-distance trade, evidenced by the discovery of Mesopotamian seals at Harappan sites. Trade items included:

• Metals: Copper and bronze tools and ornaments.
• Semi-Precious Stones: Lapis lazuli, carnelian, and turquoise.
• Seals and Beads: Used for administrative purposes and trade.

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The decline of the Harappan Civilization began around 1900 BCE, with cities like Mohenjodaro showing signs of urban decay. The reasons for this decline include:

• Climate Change: River drying and changing monsoon patterns may have impacted agriculture.
• Shifts in Trade Routes: Changes in long-distance trade networks could have weakened the economy.
• Natural Disasters: Floods and tectonic activity could have led to the abandonment of cities.

By 1300 BCE, most urban centers had been abandoned, and the civilization shifted towards a rural-based economy.

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1.7 Important Excavations and Sites

• Harappa: First excavated in 1921 by Dayaram Sahni, Harappa is located on the Ravi River in Punjab. It provided crucial insights into the civilization’s urban planning and social organization.
• Mohenjodaro: Excavated in 1922 by R.D. Banerjee, this site in Sindh revealed extensive town planning, the Great Bath, and advanced drainage systems.
• Kalibangan: Located on the Ghaggar River, it shows both pre-Harappan and Harappan phases. Excavations revealed fire altars and evidence of a furrowed field.
• Lothal: Discovered in Gujarat near the Gulf of Cambay, this site had a dockyard, indicating maritime trade.
• Dholavira: Excavated in Gujarat, known for its advanced water management systems and stone architecture.

key features of Harappan civilization sites:

Site	Year of Excavation	Excavator	Region	Key Features
Harappa	1921	Daya Ram Sahni	Punjab, Pakistan	Grid planning, granaries, coffin burials, bead-making workshops, seals
Mohenjodaro	1922	R.D. Banerjee	Sindh, Pakistan	Great Bath, advanced drainage, multi-room houses, citadel, bronze figurines
Kalibangan	1953	A. Ghosh	Rajasthan, India	Fire altars, furrowed land, mud-brick platforms, evidence of earthquake
Lothal	1953	S.R. Rao	Gujarat, India	Dockyard, ship designs on seals, bead industry, rice cultivation
Dholavira	1985-1990	R.S. Bisht	Gujarat, India	Water reservoirs, unique town planning, inscriptions, stepped wells
Rakhigarhi	1997	Amarendra Nath	Haryana, India	Largest Harappan site, jewelry, animal figurines, evidence of writing
Banawali	1974	R.S. Bisht	Haryana, India	Fortified settlement, circular fire pits, barley remains, bangles
Chanhudaro	1931	N.G. Majumdar	Sindh, Pakistan	Bead factories, terracotta models, absence of citadel, seal-making
Surkotada	1964	J.P. Joshi	Gujarat, India	Evidence of horse bones, fortifications, mud-brick houses
Kot Diji	1955	Fazal Ahmed Khan	Sindh, Pakistan	Pre-Harappan layers, defensive walls, black-on-red pottery
Rangpur	1931	M.S. Vats	Gujarat, India	Rice cultivation, terracotta toys, copper tools
Balakot	1973	G.F. Dales	Sindh, Pakistan	Shell industry, early Harappan artifacts, fish remains
Allahdino	1958	George Dales	Sindh, Pakistan	Gold and silver ornaments, evidence of rural settlements
Sutkagan Dor	1927	Stein	Baluchistan, Pakistan	Trade route to Mesopotamia, mud-brick fortifications
Kunal	1986	S.R. Rao	Haryana, India	Pre-Harappan culture, gold jewelry, storage jars
Desalpur	1963	J.P. Joshi	Gujarat, India	Fortified site, stone walls, microlithic tools
Amri	1929	N.G. Majumdar	Sindh, Pakistan	Early Harappan phase, pottery, terracotta figurines
Nageshwar	1983	M.H. Raval	Gujarat, India	Shell-working industry, evidence of coastal trade
Bhagatrav	1950	S.R. Rao	Gujarat, India	Port town, semi-precious stones, trade links with Mesopotamia
Kanmer	2005	J.S. Kharakwal	Gujarat, India	Fortification, pottery, shell artifacts, water management
Shortugai	1976	Viktor Sarianidi	Afghanistan	Lapis lazuli trade, evidence of canal irrigation
Daimabad	1958	B.K. Thapar	Maharashtra, India	Bronze chariot, pottery, terracotta figurines
Ganweriwala	1975	Rafique Mughal	Punjab, Pakistan	Fifth largest Harappan site, no major excavations yet
Khanak	2006	Archaeological Survey	Haryana, India	Mining site, semi-precious stone beads
Sanauli	2005	Amarendra Nath	Uttar Pradesh, India	Copper coffin burials, chariots, warrior artifacts
Rojdi	1955	Archaeological Survey	Gujarat, India	Agriculture-based settlement, black-on-red pottery
Hulas	1978	B.B. Lal	Uttar Pradesh, India	Mud-brick structures, hearths, storage pits
Bagasra	1996	S. Pratap	Gujarat, India	Industrial center, semi-precious stone beads, faience objects
Mitathal	1968	Suraj Bhan	Haryana, India	Double defensive walls, early Harappan pottery