April 24, 2025 3:28 am
1. Agrarian Crisis and Landholding Patterns in India
- Subject: Economics
- UPSC Mains Paper: GS3 (Agriculture)
Why in News?
Headline: “Agrarian crisis: Landholding recedes by 1/3rd, loans swell for farm households, finds NABARD survey” (Source: The Hindu)
About Agrarian Crisis in India
Definition of Agrarian Crisis
The agrarian crisis refers to the ongoing economic, social, and structural issues in India’s agricultural sector, marked by declining landholdings, rising debt, poor productivity, and increasing financial vulnerability among farmers.
Trends in Landholding Patterns
Since independence, average landholding sizes in India have been decreasing due to population growth, division of family-owned land, and urbanization. The average landholding size has now reduced significantly, affecting economies of scale in farming and pushing small farmers into distress.
Shrinking Landholdings
Small and marginal farmers (with less than 2 hectares) make up about 86% of all farmers in India, yet they operate on less than 47% of the total cropped area. Fragmented landholdings lead to inefficiencies and hinder the adoption of modern farming techniques, affecting productivity and income.
Factors Contributing to the Agrarian Crisis
- Low Productivity: Limited access to high-quality inputs, irrigation, and technology.
- High Input Costs: Fertilizers, seeds, and machinery are expensive, especially for smallholders.
- Debt and Credit Issues: Dependence on informal credit sources with high interest rates adds to the financial burden.
- Climate Variability: Monsoon dependency and climate change make farming uncertain and risky.
- Market Access and Price Volatility: Lack of storage facilities, market access, and price fluctuations reduce profitability.
Government Interventions
Schemes like the Kisan Credit Card (KCC), PM-KISAN, and Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY) aim to provide financial support, crop insurance, and credit facilities to farmers. Institutional reforms are encouraged through initiatives like eNAM (National Agriculture Market) to enable farmers to access better market prices.
Debt and Loan Structure
Farmers’ debt levels have been rising, with over 50% of rural households reportedly indebted. The availability of institutional finance has improved, but many farmers still rely on informal credit with higher interest rates.
Impact of Rising Expenses and Debt
Higher household expenses have outpaced income growth, increasing the financial stress on farming households. The rising debt burden limits farmers’ ability to invest in better resources and technology, creating a cycle of low productivity and debt.
Food Security Concerns
Reduced spending on food indicates potential risks to food security and nutrition, as more income is allocated to non-food expenses.
Economic and Social Implications
Agrarian distress impacts rural employment, leading to migration to urban areas and affecting the rural economy’s sustainability.
Future Outlook and Recommendations
Addressing land fragmentation, improving access to affordable credit, promoting crop diversification, and expanding market access are critical to resolving the agrarian crisis.
Source: NABARD NAFIS Survey 2021-22, The Hindu
2. United Nations Peacekeeping and West Asia Security
- Subject: International Relations
- UPSC Mains Paper: GS2 (International Organizations)
Why in News?
Headline: “Who are THE UN peacekeepers at Lebanon’s border with Israel?” (Source: The Indian Express)
About United Nations Peacekeeping and UNIFIL
UN Peacekeeping Definition and Purpose
UN peacekeeping refers to the deployment of international personnel to help maintain or restore peace in conflict areas. It is a joint effort involving the UN Department of Peace Operations, member states, and the host governments.
UNIFIL (United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon)
Established in 1978 to prevent violations along the 121-km border (Blue Line) between Lebanon and Israel. Originally observational, UNIFIL’s mandate was expanded in 2006 to prevent hostile activities and report violations.
Mandate Expansion in 2006
The UN Security Council resolution expanded UNIFIL’s mandate to include ensuring that its operational area is not used for hostile activities, especially after incidents with Hezbollah.
Composition and Structure
UNIFIL consists of over 10,000 personnel, including soldiers and civilians, from around 50 countries working to monitor and report activities along the Lebanon-Israel border.
Primary Functions and Observational Role
UNIFIL’s mandate includes observing the ceasefire, preventing conflicts, and aiding humanitarian assistance within its operational area. Reporting violations to the UN Security Council is part of its expanded mandate to maintain peace.
Challenges in Peacekeeping
The United States and Israel have expressed concerns over UNIFIL’s inability to prevent Hezbollah from stockpiling weapons in Lebanon.
Funding and Member State Contributions
UN peacekeeping operations are funded by contributions from UN member states, who are legally obligated under the UN Charter to pay their share.
Composition of Peacekeeping Forces
Peacekeeping personnel include soldiers, police officers, and civilian staff. Troop-contributing countries volunteer their personnel for these missions.
India’s Role in UN Peacekeeping
India is a leading contributor of troops and has suffered 179 casualties, the highest among contributing nations. India has also advocated for a greater role in UN peacekeeping decisions.
Basic Principles of Peacekeeping
UN peacekeeping operates under three core principles: consent of the parties, impartiality, and non-use of force except in self-defense.
Source: United Nations, The Indian Express, Government of India
3. Assisted Reproductive Technology and Ethical Implications
- Subject: Science
- UPSC Mains Paper: GS3 (Science and Technology)
Why in News?
- Headline: “Why Delhi HC allowed a 60-year-old couple to access dead son’s sperm” (Source: The Indian Express)
About Assisted Reproductive Technology and Ethical Implications
- Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART):
- ART includes medical techniques to aid individuals or couples in achieving pregnancy.
- Common methods include in vitro fertilization (IVF), sperm banking, and surrogacy.
- ART is crucial for individuals with fertility issues due to health conditions or medical treatments.
- Sperm Banking:
- The process of collecting and cryopreserving sperm for future use, especially before treatments like chemotherapy that may impair fertility.
- Stored sperm can be used later in assisted reproduction, such as IVF, to help couples conceive.
- Legal Framework in India:
- The Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART) Act, 2021, regulates ART procedures to ensure safe practices in India.
- The act primarily covers married couples, lacking specific guidelines for posthumous reproduction by non-spousal family members.
- ART Rules and Surrogacy Regulation Act, 2022:
- ART Rules, 2022, specify that posthumous sperm retrieval requests are allowed only from a surviving spouse.
- Surrogacy Regulation Act, 2021, provides for intending couples or women but does not allow grandparents to seek surrogacy with a deceased family member’s sperm.
- Delhi High Court Ruling on Posthumous Reproduction:
- The court ruled that the ART Act does not apply retroactively, permitting the parents to retrieve their deceased son’s sperm.
- Sperm was considered part of the deceased’s property, with parents designated as legal heirs under the Hindu Succession Act when no spouse or children exist.
- Ethical Considerations:
- The case raises ethical questions around assumed consent from the deceased, the welfare of the future child, and family rights over reproductive material.
- The court stressed the importance of considering both consent and child welfare in such cases.
- International Practices on Posthumous Reproduction:
- Uruguay: Requires written consent valid for one year post-death.
- Belgium: Permits reproduction six months after death if requested within two years.
- Canada and UK: Allow with written consent from the deceased.
- Israel: Allows only a female partner to request sperm use, excluding parents.
- Implications of the Ruling:
- The case sets a precedent for non-spousal parties to retrieve gametes, raising broader questions about legal and ethical boundaries.
- Could lead to future legal frameworks addressing inheritance and reproductive rights in similar scenarios.
Source: The Indian Express, Delhi High Court Rulings, International Legal Standards
4. Nobel Peace Prize 2024 and Nuclear Disarmament
- Subject: Science
- UPSC Mains Paper: GS3 (Nuclear Sector and Peace Studies)
Why in News?
- Headline: “Nobel Peace Prize 2024: Honouring N-bomb Survivors and the Disarmament Movement” (Source: Indian Express)
About Nobel Peace Prize 2024 and Nuclear Disarmament
- Recipient: Nihon Hidankyo, a Japanese organization representing survivors of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings.
- Recognized for its role in advocating a nuclear-weapon-free world.
- Continues to raise awareness about the humanitarian consequences of nuclear weapons.
- About Hibakusha:
- Hibakusha is a Japanese term meaning “bomb-affected people,” referring to survivors of the 1945 atomic bombings.
- Many Hibakusha suffer from radiation sickness, cancer, genetic damage, and psychological trauma.
- Their advocacy has been instrumental in the global nuclear disarmament movement.
- Nuclear Taboo:
- The term refers to the global hesitation to use nuclear weapons since the 1945 bombings.
- This informal “taboo” is largely attributed to the humanitarian impacts observed in Japan, influencing international policy.
- Background on Atomic Bombings (1945):
- Hiroshima Bombing (August 6, 1945): Over 70,000 people killed instantly by the bomb “Little Boy.”
- Nagasaki Bombing (August 9, 1945): Around 40,000 people killed instantly by the bomb “Fat Man.”
- Significance of Atomic Bombs:
- The bombs derive their power from nuclear fission reactions, releasing massive amounts of energy.
- The explosive chain reaction involves splitting the nuclei of heavy elements, like uranium or plutonium.
- Global Disarmament Efforts:
- The Nobel Peace Prize has previously honored efforts toward nuclear disarmament, including awards to the International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons (ICAN) in 2017.
- Current Relevance of Nuclear Disarmament:
- Increased geopolitical tensions and nuclear threats underscore the importance of global disarmament.
- Nihon Hidankyo’s work remains critical as nations reconsider nuclear policies amid rising global tensions.
- About the Atomic Bomb’s Destructive Power:
- The bomb’s explosion is triggered when a neutron hits a uranium-235 or plutonium-239 nucleus, causing a split and releasing energy, heat, gamma rays, and more neutrons.
- This results in a chain reaction, producing a large-scale explosion capable of immense destruction.
Source: Indian Express, The Nobel Foundation, UN Disarmament Office
5. Rapid Intensification of Hurricane Milton and Climate Change
- Subject: Geography
- UPSC Mains Paper: GS1 (Climatology)
Why in News?
- Headline: “The Rapid Intensification of Hurricane Milton” (Source: The Hindu)
About Rapid Intensification of Hurricanes and Climate Change
- Definition of a Hurricane:
- A hurricane is a tropical storm system with strong winds, heavy rainfall, and a well-defined low-pressure center.
- Known as a hurricane in the Atlantic and Northeast Pacific, a typhoon in the Northwest Pacific, and a cyclone in the Indian Ocean.
- Characteristics of Hurricanes:
- Hurricanes have a low-pressure eye, which is calm compared to the surrounding eyewall with intense thunderstorms.
- Wind speeds in hurricanes can reach over 74 mph, causing significant damage.
- Formation of Hurricanes:
- Hurricanes form over warm ocean waters with temperatures above 26°C.
- Warm, moist air rises from the ocean, creating a low-pressure area, which intensifies as it cools and condenses, releasing heat.
- Categories of Hurricanes:
- Measured on the Saffir-Simpson Scale, ranging from Category 1 (weakest) to Category 5 (strongest) based on sustained wind speeds and potential for damage.
- Factors Behind Hurricane Milton’s Intensification:
- Ocean Heat: Sea surface temperatures in the western Gulf of Mexico reached nearly 31°C, significantly above the hurricane formation threshold.
- Climate Change: Rising sea temperatures, largely attributed to global warming, increase hurricane intensity.
- Moisture Content: Higher temperatures allow the atmosphere to hold more moisture, contributing to stronger storms and heavier rainfall.
- Wind Shear: Minimal wind shear allowed Hurricane Milton to intensify rapidly without interruption.
- Impact of Climate Change on Hurricane Patterns:
- Global warming has led to an increase in the frequency and intensity of hurricanes.
- Rising sea levels and warmer waters are amplifying storm surges, increasing coastal flooding risks.
- Scientific Observations:
- Studies show that the rate of rapid intensification in hurricanes has increased in recent years, making storms more unpredictable and dangerous.
Source: The Hindu, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), IPCC
